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PROFITABLE 


POULTRY    KEEPING 


BY 

STEPHEN     BEALE 


EDITED  WITH  ADDITIONS  BY 

MASON  C.  WELD 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

GEORGE    ROUTLEDGE   &   SONS 

9  Lafayette  Place 


LONDON  :    Broadway,  Ludgate    Hill 


636 
B36 


^s/? 


Copyright,  1884, 
By  Joseph  L.  Blamire. 


INTRODUCTION. 


I  ESTEEM  ifc  a  privilege  and  a  pleasure  to  introduce  this 
^  excellent  hand-book  to  all  who  are  practically  interested  in 
keeping  poultry.  I  would  say  to  the  veriest  tyro,  provided  he 
had  a  modicum  of  common  sense  :  ^^  Here,  take  this  book  of 
Stephen  Beale's,  study  it  carefully  in  whatever  it  is  applic- 
fible  to  your  needs,  and  follow  it.  You  will  find  it  a  safe 
guide,  and  you  will  almost  surely  come  out  well  with  your 
poultry  the  first  year.'^  Any  old  poultry-keeper  may  study  it 
with  profit,  and  if  he  finds  some  few  passages  to  criticise,  and 
opinions  advanced  with  which  he  does  not  agree,  let  him  con- 
sider that  no  two  parts  of  the  country  are  subject  to  the  same 
conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  surroundings. 

English  current  literature  is  far  richer  than  ours  in  the 
results  of  experience  in  poultry  matters,  and  the  systems  in 
vogue  there  and  in  France  among  the  most  successful  poultry 
raisers  are  very  much  superior  to  general  practice  in  this 
country,  so  that  Mr.  Beale's  obvious  familiarity  with  the  best 
practice  in  those  countries,  in  connection  with  his  own  large 
experience,  is  a  very  great  advantage  to  the  book. 

The  author  shows  himself  upon  every  page  to  be  a  practi- 
cal man,  fertile  in  expedients,  gifted  with  rare  common  sense, 
^  with  a  knowledge  of  his  subject  in  matters  of  useful  and 
^  essential  detail,  and  one  can  readily  pardon  a  little  verbose- 
g  ness  of  style  and  occasional  repetitions.  It  is  a  business 
3P  book,  and  as  such  it  should  be  regarded.  It  was  not  written 
o-i   for  fanciers,  though  no  poultry  book  (and  these  are,  gener- 


4  Introduction, 

ally,  primarily  fanciers'  books)  gives  better  instruction  in 
regard  to  the  successful  rearing  of  fancy  poultry.  Yel",  giv- 
ing well-bred  poultry  of  all  kinds  their  true  value,  it  is  replete 
with  instruction  how  to  make  the  most  mone}^,  or  at  least  the 
most  profit,  by  their  use. 

The  public  is  familiar  with  the  advantages  derived  from 
the  employment  of  thorough-bred  and  pure-bred  males  in  the 
breeding  of  all  other  kinds  of  domestic  animals.  We  all  know 
how  that,  with  sheep  and  swine  especially,  grades  and  cross 
breeds  of  the  first  generation  are  much  more  profitable  to  rear 
for  their  useful  qualities  than  full  bloods  are,  for  the  reason 
that  in  such  a  first  cross  those  high  qualities  which  have 
become  fixed  by  a  long  course  of  breeding  and  selection  assert 
themselves  with  peculiar  force.  It  seems  as  if  poultry  raisers 
had  been  peculiarly  negligent  of  or  blind  to  this  natural  law, 
and  had  neglected  to  practise  that  which  in  the  rearing  of 
other  kinds  of  farm  stock  they  consider  of  vital  importance. 

The  chapter  on  *^  Cross-bred  Poultry"  puts  this  subject  in 
a  very  clear  light,  but  hardly  dwells  sufificiently,  to  my  notion, 
on  the  fact  that  where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  pure-bred  poul- 
try of  different  breeds,  such  as  one  desires  to  cross,  grades 
may  be  reared  in  two  or  three  years  by  crossing  a  pure  male 
bird  of  the  wished-for  breed  upcin,  first,  a  good  flock  of  com- 
mon females,  the  next  year  (changing  the  male)  upon  the  pul- 
lets of  the  first  year,  and  so  on.  By  the  time  the  second  or 
third  cross  is  made  the  grade  birds  will  possess  almost  fully 
the  useful  qualities  of  the  breed  from  which  the  cross  is 
taken,  and  the  hens  may  be  used  just  as  if  they  were  pure  in 
crossing  with  a  cock  of  a  different  breed  for  market  poultry  or 
for  layers,  as  Mr.  Beale  directs. 


Introduction,  5 

Poultry  keeping  for  profit  is  tlie  laudable  ambition  of  the 
great  majority  of  poultry  keepers,  and  poultry  are  really  kept 
to  the  profit  of  their  owners,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases. 
Little  account  is  made  of  them,  and  no  account  is  kept  of 
their  expenses  or  of  the  income  derived  from  them,  and  yet  it 
is  the  settled  conviction  of  the  frugal  housewife,  who  looks 
more  or  less  after  the  poultry,  and  of  the  farmer,  who  sees 
how  large  a  part  of  the  store  bill  is  settled  by  eggs,  and  who 
brings  home  from  market  or  from  the  shipper  who  buys  his 
dressed  poultry  at  Christmas-time  a  satisfactory  roll  of  bank- 
notes, that  poultry  is  really  a  paying  farm  crop. 

Then,  too,  when  a  regular  debit  and  credit  account  is  kept 
with  the  poultry,  and  a  fair  allowance  is  made  for  labor  and 
interest,  the  profit  always  shows  up  to  be  something  enor- 
mous— often  one  hundred  per  cent.,  or  even  more. 

If  there  really  is  so  much  profit  in  poultry  keeping,  is  it 
not  strange  that  when  undertaken  on  a  large  scale  it  is  always 
a  losing  business  ?  Few  people  consider  that  farm-yard  fowls 
of  all  kinds,  ducks  and  geese  included,  got  a  great  part  of 
their  living,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  year  the  whole  of  if, 
from  what  would  otherwise  be  lost  or  wasted,  and  from 
insects,  snails  and  worms,  which  are  a  positive  harm  to  grow- 
ing crops.  Hence  the  conclusion  is  a  just  one  that  poultry,  if 
well  managed,  are  really  most  profitable  as  an  adjunct  to 
other  farm  and  garden  operations,  especially  as  but  little  time 
is  generally  devoted  to  their  care  which  would  be  more  use- 
fully employed. 

This  amount  of,  so  to  speak,  wasted  food  is  limited,  and 
when  fowls  or  other  poultry  are  multiplied  upon  a  single  farm 
or  circumscribed  area,  their  care  soon  becomes  sufficient  to 


6  Introduction. 

require  the  entire  attention  of  one  or  more  persons.  Thus 
the  point  is  soon  reached  when  it  will  be  easy  to  see  there  is 
no  hundred  per  cent,  profit  in  the  business. 

Parallel  cases  are  numerous.  Twenty  or  thirty  hives  of  bees 
may  use  all  the  bee-pasturage  within  the  radius  of  the  usual 
flight  of  the  honey-gatherers,  and,  where  this  is  the  fact,  tiie 
addition  of  a  dozen  hives  would  result  in  more  labor  to  the 
bee-keeper  and  in  the  harvesting  of  a  good  deal  less  honey. 

Thus  it  is  every  poultry  keeper's  province  to  study  care- 
fully his  own  resources  and  make  the  most  of  them  ;  and 
while  Mr.  Beale  has  carefully  avoided  advising  the  keeping  of 
poultry  on  a  large  scale,  and  in  fact  discourages  it,  the  person 
desirous  of  making  the  experiment  will  find  the  book  replete 
with  sound  views  and  practical  hints  in  regard  to  its  success- 
ful accomplishment. 

Mr.  Beale  can  hardly  be  as  familiar  as  I  am  with  the 
wretched  manner  in  which  a  great  part  of  our  poultry  is  sent 
to  market,  and  the  shocking  condition  in  which  it  arrives. 
New  York  receives  thousands  of  tons  of  poultry  which  must 
be  closed  out  in  wholesale  lots  at  ruinously  low  prices,  and 
which  is  then  sold  at  a  small  advance  at  retail,  to  secure  a 
quick  sale  and  prevent  total  loss.  If  a  reform  could  be  insti- 
tuted by  which  the  common  farmers  of  the  interior  and  AYest- 
ern  States  would  properly  fatten,  pluck,  dress,  and  ship  their 
poultry,  somewhat  after  the  system  advised  in  this  book,  iti 
would  add  almost  inconceivably  to  the  profits  of  poultry 
keeping  to  these  people  as  well  as  to  the  general  wealth  of  the 
country.     I  sincerely  hope  that  this  may  be  one  of  the  results 

of  its  publication. 

MASON  C.  WELD. 

Closter,  N.  J.,  March,  1884. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction  ...,..••*.        c 

CHAPTER  I. 

G3NEKAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  Poultry  Mania — ^Cochins  Thirty  Years  ago — Poultry  Keeping  often  a 
Hobby — Recent  increase  of  interest  in  Poultry  Keeping — Farmers  and 
Poultry — Farms  in  Franre  —Consumption  of  Eggs— Prices  of  Eggs — 
Value  of  Fresh  Eggs— Poultry  in  Paris     .         •         •         ■         •         .11 

CHAPTEH   11. 

WHO     SHOULD     KEEP     POULTRY f 

Who  may  Keep  Poultry — Value  of  Eggs  for  Children  and  Invalids — Wlio 
bhould  not  Keep  Poultry — Pleasure  in  Pursuit — Suburban  Rcsid-nts 
— Size  of  Runs— Cottagers  and  Poultry  Keeping — Does  Poultry 
Keeping  Pay  ? IS 

CHAPTER    HI. 

LAYING     OUT     THE     POULTRY-YARD. 

Gradual  Commencement  best — Selection  of  Ground — -Separate  Houses — 
Aspect  of  Houses— Walls  of  Houses — Dividing  the  Yard — Plans— A 
Chicken  Yard 9         ,         ,         .       25 

CHAPTER    IV. 

POULTRY     HOUSES. 

Importance  of  Houses— Cost — Elaborate  Houses  not  Nec'^ed — Good 
Houses  Required— Size  of  Houses  and  Runs — Adtpting  exisfiig 
Buildings -Cherp  Houses— Sheds — Hou  es  in  Gardens      .         .         ,30 


8  Contents, 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  ERECTION  OP  POULTRY  HOUSES. 


PAGE 


Material  to  be  Used— Tenant's  Fixtures — Too  Large  Houses  Objectionable 
— Foundation— Saving  of  Timber— Frame-Work— Windows  and  Doors 
— Ventilation — Floors — Artificial  Heating        ,         ,         .         ,         •       37 

CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    FITTINGS   AND   RUNS. 

Perches— Nest    Boxes — Sheds — 4Jnfenced    Huns— Space    to    be    Given — 

Fencing 48 

CHAPTER    VII. 

MORE  ABOUT  HOUSES  AND  RUNS. 

Effect  of  Confinement— Houses  on  Wheels- The  Best  Plan  for  Farms — Use 
of  Fruit  Trees  in  Runs— Kinds  of  Trees  to  Plant— Fruit  Bushes- 
Other  Aids 56 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

CHICKEN-HOUSES. 

Early  Chickens— Position  of  Chicken  House— The  Attendant's  House- 
Gravel  and  Grass  Run — The  House — Floor — Provision  against  Rats — 
Size  of  House 63 

CHAPTER   IX. 

THE   KIND    OP   FOWLS   TO   KEEP. 

Choice  of  Breeds — Errors  in  Selection — Cross  and  pure  bred  Fowls — Breeds 
to  be  chosen — Confinement  or  liberty  -  Hardy  Breeds— Non-sitting 
Breeds — Table  Fowls — Sitters  and  Mothers — General  utility  Fowls     .       69 

CHAPTER    X. 

THE    BREEDS  OF    POULTRY. 

Andalusians— Aseels — Bantams — Brahmas — Cochins — Dominiques — Dork- 
ings—French— Game— Hamburghs  —  Langsh  an  s— Leghorns  —  Malays 
— Minorcas  —  Plymouth  Rocks  —  Polish— Scotch  Greys  —  Spanish- 
Silkies  79 

CHAPTER    XI. 

CROSS-BRED   POULTRY. 

Farm-yard  Mongrels— First  Cross  cnly  to  be  Used— Value  of  Cross-breeding 
— Pure-bred  Fowls  to  be  the  Fuundation— Sale  of  Eggs  and  Chickens 
— Methods  of  Cross-breeding— Some  Crosses— Improving  present 
Stocks 125 


Contents,  g 

CHAPTER  XII. 


Ducks  very  profitable — Water  needed  for  Breeders — Not  to  "be  kept  with 
Hens — Duck  Farms — Housing — The  Wild  Duck — The  Aylesbury — 
The  Rouen — The  Pekin — The  Cayuga — The  Muscovy — Ornamental 
Varieties — Keeping  in  Small  Runs — Forcing — Breeding — Hatching — 
Rearing — Feeding— Preparing  Rice 133 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

GEESE     AKD     TURKEYS. 

Geese  in  England — ^Benefit  to  Crops— Breeds — Weights  attained — Manage- 
ment —  Turkeys  —  Said  to  be  delicate  —  Breeds — Management — 
Fattening 147 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

THE    SELECTION    OF    STOCK    BIRDS. 

Importance  of  Care  in  Selection — Influence  of  Parents — Selection  for  Layers 
— Selection  for  Table  Fowls — State  of  Breeding  Stock — Buying  Birds 
— Buying  Eggs  for  Sitting— Space  for  Breeding  Stock — Birds  not  to  be 
Related — Evils  of  In-breeding— Nunaber  of  Hens  to  Cock — When  to 
expect  Fertile  Eggs — Feeding — Importance  of  Health  and  Condition  .     153 

CHAPTER    XV. 

HATCHING. 

Shall  Hens  sit  themselves  ? — Selection  of  Place  for  Sitting— Hatching 
Boxes — Making  the  Nests — Food  and  Water — Setting  the  Hen — 
Feeding — Airing  the  Eggs— Kind  of  Food  for  Hens — Dust  Bath — 
Testing  the  Eggs — Period  of  Incubation — Management  duiing  Hatching 
—Helping  the  Chicks 164 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

ARTIFICIAL   INCUBATION. 

A  Practical  Success  -  Past  Attempts  —  Difficulties  —  Later  Attempts  —  The 
Turning  Point  —  Rouillier's  Machine  —  Prejudice  Against  the  Hydro- 
Incubator  —  The  Incubator  Trials— How  Superior  to  Previous  Machines 

—  Drawback  to  Hydro-Incubator — Voitellier's  Hydro — Owen's  Tabular 

—  Arnold's  B-^g  Oven —Self  Heating  Incubators  —  Hearson's  — New  Cen- 
tennial—  The  "Perfect  Hatcher"— The  Thermostatic  —  The  Novelty  — 
Brooders,  etc.    ..........      176 


lo  Contents, 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

BEARING— NATURAL   AND   ARTIFICIAL. 

PAGE 

Size  of  Eggs — Supposed  Ways  of  Testing  Sex  and  Fertility  of  Eggs — For- 
mation of  Egg — The  Young  Chicks — First  Day  after  Hatching — Food 
— Coops — Influence  of  Early  ]\Ianagement — Coddling  Injurious — First 
Three  or  Four  Days— Second  Stage — The  Run — Food— Meat  Diet — 
Green  Food — System  in  Feeding — Co'd  Mothers — Troubles  with 
Hens — Artificial  Mothers— Management — Outdoor  Rearers — Heat — 
OTercrowding— Teaching  Chicks  to  Eat— Turkeys  as  Rearers — water.       193 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 

POOD     AND     FEEDING. 

Food  the  Fuel  of  all  Life— Effect  of  Bad  Food— Eff'ect  of  Over-feeding— 
Food  for  Fowls  in  Confinement  not  to  be  .^ame  as  when  at  Liberty — 
What  is  Needed  in  Food— Qualities  of  the  Grains — Barley — Oats — 
Wheat— Maize — Buckwheat — Pulse — Rice — Bone-meal— Water  •      211 

CHAPrEn    XIX. 

EARLY    EGGS   AND    CHICKENS. 

Early  E/g^  and  Chickens  bring  High  Prices — How  to  Secure  them — Pullets 

to  be  Used— Hens  to  be  Mated  Early — Good  Housing  and  Feeding     .       220 

CHAPTER    XX. 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  TABLE  FOWLS. 

Superiority  of  French  System — Breeds  of  Fowls  Suitable  for  Fattening — 
Methods  —  Duration  of  Process — Food  —  Fattening  and  Cramming 
Machines — Cramming  by  Hand — Killing  Fowls — Dressing  in  France — 
Shaping-boards — Advantage  of  Dressing — Caponising         ,         ,         .      224 

CHAPTER   XXI. 

THE    DISEASES   OF   POULTRY. 

General  Treatment  of  Disease — Causes— Apoplexy — Bronchitis — Bumble 
Foot — Catarrh  — Consumption  —  Cramp  —  Cropbound  —  Diarrhoea — 
Diphtheria— Egg  Organs — Feather  Eating — Gapes — Roup— Cholera     .      236 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

POINTS    OF    MANAGKMENT. 

Importance  of  Details — Keeping  an  Account — Rotation  of  Crops — Poultry 
Manure — The  Dust-bath — The  Pieservation  of  E  gs — Packing  Eggs — 
Sending  Eargs  to  Market 245 


PROFITABLE  POULTRY  KEEPING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    COKSIDEEATIOKS.  . 

The  Poultry  Mania — Coclnns  Thirty  Years  ago — Poultry  Keeping  often  a  Hobl'y 
— Recent  increase  of  interest  in  Poultry  Keeping — Farmers  and  Poultry — 
Farms  ia  France — Consumption  of  Eggs — Prices  of  Eggs — Value  of  Fieth. 
Eggs — Poultry  in  Paris. 

There  is  an  old  adage,  and  one  the  truth  of  which  is  proved 
in  our  experiences  almost  every  day,  that  "  there  is  nothing 
new  under  the  sun,"  and  probably  many  of  those  who  can 
remember  the  poultry  mania  of  thirty  years  ago,  may  have 
been  led  to  think  that  the  undoubted  revival  of  interest 
in  poultry  which  has  taken  place  within  the  last  few  years, 
is  simply  a  repetition  of  that  mania.  Then,  as  now, 
poultry  sold  for  fabulous  prices,  and  it  was  no  uncommon 
thing  to  hear  of  a  bird  having  realised  1200,  or  a  setting 
of  eggs  $25  ;  and  the  fact  that  last  year  (1882)  a  game  cock 
was  sold  at  Birmingham  for  $500,  and  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  show  a  game  bantam  cockerel  was  claimed  for  $250, 
would  at  the  first  sight  appear  to  warrant  such  a  con- 
clusion as  we  have  named.  But  on  considering  the  matter 
a  little  further,  we  find  a  marked  difference  in  every  respect, 
save  only  the  large  prices  paid  for  specimens.     The  mania  of 


12  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

thirty  years  ago  was  almost  entirely  relating  to  one  breed 
— the  Cochin — whereas  now  all  varieties  of  poultry  receive 
a  share  of  attention,  although  there  are  some  greater 
favourites  and  more  valuable  than  others.  Then,  the 
general  belief  was  that  the  fowls  named — which,  by  the 
way,  were  new,  and  had  only  recently  been  imported  from 
China — were  the  greatest  layers  and  best  table  fowls  ever 
known,  that  their  importation  was  of  national  importance, 
and  that  to  obtain  possession  of  some  of  these  birds  would 
be  a  sure  road  to  wealth.  How  this  delusion  arose — for 
delusion  it  undoubtedly  was,  the  Cochin  then  and  now 
being  the  least  profitable  of  all  our  breeds  of  domestic 
poultry — it  is  not  our  province  here  to  inquire,  except  to 
say  that  we  believe  it  was,  like  almost  every  other  mania, 
due  to  designing  men,  who  largely  profited  by  it.  At  the 
present  day,  poultry  fanciers,  i.e.,  those  who  go  in  for 
poultry  breeding  as  a  hobby,  without  caring  much  for  the 
economic  qualities  of  the  birds,  and  who  are  the  persons 
that  pay  such  high  prices  for  first  class  specimens,  have 
no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  public  benefactors,  and  neither 
deceive  themselves  nor  any  one  else  by  posing  in  such  a 
manner.  They  say  plainly  that  they  keep  poultry  as  a 
hobby;  it  ministers  to  their  pleasure  when  striving  after 
an  ideal  standard,  which  may  or  may  not  improve  the  birds 
so  far  as  their  profitable  qualities  are  concerned,  but  for 
that  they  care  little.  They  claim  the  same  liberty  as  the 
fox-hunter  or  the  sportsman,  and  are  willing  to  pay  for  their 
pleasure ;  and  if  they  pay  very  high  prices  for  birds,  they 
do  so  in  the  same  way  as  others  do  for  fancy  stock,  and 
can  generally  get  their  money  back  again.  Therefore,  it 
will  be  seen  at  once  that  there  is  a  very  marked  difference 
between  the  poultry  fanciers  of  thirty  years  ago  and  those 
of  to-day,  and  there  is  very  little  probability  of  any  repeti- 
tion of  the  collapse  of  the  present  mania,  if  such  it  can 


General  Considerations,  13 

be  called,  for  there  is  now  no  deception   as  to  the  end  in 
view. 

In  considering  the  question  of  profitable  poultry  keeping 
there  must  be  no  mistake  made  by  mixing  up  the  poultry 
fancy,  by  which  term  we  must  be  understood  to  mean  those 
who  breed  for  fancy  points,  and  the  revived  interest  in 
poultry,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The  latter  is 
due  to  an  altogether  different  cause.  Eeccnt  events  have 
compelled  agriculturists  to  turn  their  attention  to  matters 
which  they  have  heretofore  neglected,  and  perhaps  re- 
garded with  contempt.  Our  State  and  county  agricultural 
societies  throughout  the  country  have  long  been  in  the  habit 
of  offering  prizes  for  poultry  from  a  fancier's  standpoint. 
This  is  well,  perhaps,  but  tliey  should  not  only  not  neglect, 
but  should  make  especially  prominent,  the  properly  agricul- 
tural— that  is,  useful — breeds.  It  is,  besides,  a  sign  of  the 
times,  having  an  important  bearing  on  the  future  of  poultry 
raising,  that  some  prominent  societies  have  offered  prizes  for 
cross-bred  fowls,  shown  with  reference  to  their  value  upon 
the  table,  and  one,  at  least,  has  conditioned  the  award  of 
prizes  upon  a  statement  of  the  breed  and  sex  of  the  parent 
fowls  and  the  age  of  the  chickens.  But  it  is  not  the  only  sign, 
for  all  over  the  country  more  attention  is  being  paid  to  poultry, 
both  by  farmers  and  cottagers  ;  and  we  think  that  the  way  in 
which  the  matter  is  now  being  treated  proves  that  there  is  more 
chance  of  success  than  there  ever  has  been  before.  Those 
who  have  the  best  opportunity  of  succeeding  are  now  turning 
their  attention  to  it — we  mean  farmers  who  have  land  at 
their  disposal ;  and  there  is  little  talk  of  establishing  poul- 
try farms  pure  and  simple,  which  never  have,  and  we  do 
not  think  ever  will,  succeed.  Buildings,  food,  and  wages 
have  cost  so  much  that  the  managers  of  poultry  farms  in 
the  past  have  been  induced  to  over-crowd,  in  the  hope  of 
getting  a  larger  return  ;  disease  has  crept  in,  with  ruin  and 
disaster  as  a  natural  result.     Examples  of  this  kind  have 


14  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

been  numerous  enougli ;  but  the  tales  wliicli  a  few  years  ago 
were  current  as  to  extensive  poultry  farms  in  France,  so 
plausible  and  theoretically  sound  as  they  appeared  to  be, 
doubtless  tempted  many  to  venture  on  such  a  speculation. 
These  huge  farms  never  existed,  and  were  all  a  myth  ;  and 
we  have  the  testimony  of  Mr.  H.  M.  Jenkins  and  of  Mr. 
Sutherland,  who  visited  France  on  behalf  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Commission,  that  whilst  almost  every  peasant 
keeps  a  large  number  of  fowls,  and  derives  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  income  from  them,  they  never  saw  what  could 
in  any  sense  bo  termed  a  poultry  farm.  There  are  some 
establishments  where  eggs  are  hatched  in  large  numbers  for 
the  peasants  of  the  district,  but  the  latter  provide  the  eggs  in 
the  first  instance,  and  take  the  chickens  when  hatched  ;  so 
that  such  places  arc  simply  hatching  factories.  Upon  this 
phase  of  the  question  wo  shall  have  more  to  say  later  ou. 

Poultry  and  eggs  are  of  such  well-nigh  universal  production 
that  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  tlie  numbers  produced  with  con- 
fidence that  we  even  approximate  the  truth.  In  regard  to 
those  received  in  the  markets  of  some  of  our  cities  .a  fairly 
accurate  record  is  kept,  but  this  is  accurate  only  as  to  those 
transported  by  railroads  and  steamboats,  and  probably  falls 
short  of  the  facts.  Thus,  in  the  city  of  New  York  the 
amount  of  poultry  reported  as  received  for  the  year  1883, 
ending  November  30tli,  was  27,592,050  lbs.,  valued  at  14,310,- 
604 — a  little  more  than  15  cents  a  pound. 

The  number  of  eggs  received  within  the  same  period  seems 
enormous,  and  yet  does  not  equal  the  demand,  as  shown  by 
the  number  imported  from  Europe,  and  by  the  high  prices 
paid  in  our  eastern  cities — often  40  to  GO  cents  a  dozen  in 
winter.  The  receipts  of  eggs  in  ISTew  York,  for  1883,  are 
reported  as  exceeding  534,000,000,  valued  at  $10,018,000,  or 
about  224  cents  a  dozen.  Of  the  total  number,  four  million 
nine  hundred  and  sixty-eight  thousand  (4,968,000)  were  im- 
ported from  Europe  at  a  cost  of  -$82,800,  which  is  20  cents  a 


General  Considerations.  15 

dozen  after  paying  all  expenses.  Notwithstanding  that  eggs 
are  admitted  free  of  duty,  there  must  be  some  sort  of  relation 
between  the  price  of  egg^s  and  the  price  of  feed  upon  which 
they  are  made,  and  it  seems  strange  that,  with  our  cheap  grain 
and  other  '^chicken  feed,"  greaves,  pork-scrap,  etc.,  which  we 
are  constantly  exporting,  it  is  possible  to  import  eggs  with 
proGt.  Though  the  quantity  is  small,  it  shows  that  the 
demand  for  eggs  is  increasing  faster  than  the  suj)ply. 

In  England  a  different  state  of  things  prevails,  for,  during 
the  last  four  or  five  years,  which  are  marked  by  a  great 
increase  in  population  as  well  as  in  the  consumption  of  poul- 
try products,  there  has  been  no  appreciable  increase  of  impor- 
tations. It  is  clear  that  the  English  home  producer  is  waking 
up  to  the  advantage  which  he  has  over  the  foreign  one.  He 
is  near  the  market,  and  can  get  his  goods  in  to  take  advantage 
of  its  fluctuations  ;  and  with  fresh  eggs  and  poultry,  in  form 
to  suit  the  trade,  the  highest  prices  can  be  realized,  and  it 
would  seem  that,  unless  the  price  of  feed  in  England  w^ere 
very  much  higher  than  abroad,  the  home  producer  would  soon 
be  abl^  entirely  to  shut  out  foreign  competition  in  first-class 
goods.  In  America  of  course  the  producers  have  no  excuse  ; 
they  simply  let  that  eighty-tAvo  thousand  dollars  slip  through 
their  fingers  because  of  their  neglect  to  sec  and  act  up  to 
their  own  interests. 

The  prices  now  paid  for  fresh  eggs,  not  only  in  the  cities 
but  in  all  great  manufacturing  centres  would  have  been  re- 
garded as  fabulous  a  few  years  ago.  We  can  remember  that 
twenty  years  ago  fresh  eggs  could  be  bought  at  12^  to  20  cents 
a  dozen;  but  now  these  are  never  less  than  2  cents  each,  and 
oftener  3  cents,  4  cents,  and  even  5  cents  each.  We  have 
been  informed  by  a  lady  who  lives  within  two  or  three  miles 
of  a  military  head-quarters  that  during  June  and  July  she 
can  sell  about  thirty  dozen  eggs  per  week  at  sixty  cents 
a  dozen.  They  are  sent  for  to  her  own  door,  the  cash 
paid  down,  and  she  could  sell  twice  as  many  if  she  had 
them.     This   is   undoubtedly   an   exceptional   instance,   but 


1 6  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

only  exceptional  as  to  the  time  of  tlie  year,  for  the  price  is 
not  an  uncommon  one  for  the  winter  season.  Doctors,  when 
ordering  their  patients  to  have  eggs,  nearly  ahvays  insist  upon 
their  heing  fresh,  as  they  know  how  much  better  they  are 
than  when  even  only  a  few  days  old.  And  cooks  can  tell 
the  same  story  with  respect  to  the  way  in  which  they  use 
them.  Only  those  who  have  kept  fowls  of  their  own,  or 
been  favoured  by  getting  properly  fresh  ones,  know  the  real 
pleasure  of  eating  an  tgg ;  and  there  are  many  who  cannot 
eat  one  if  more  than  three  or  four  days  old.  And  when  we 
consider  how  important  an  addition  in  its  varied  uses  an 
egg  is  to  the  breakfast,  luncheon,  dinner,  or  tea  table,  it 
will  be  seen  how  the  matter  comes  home  to  every  one,  apart 
from  all  economic  questions.  In  the  same  way,  but  perhaps 
not  to  so  great  an  extent,  does  the  raising  of  chickens  affect 
us.  The  prices  which  are  demanded  by  poulterers  for  the 
miserable  little  things  we  see  in  their  shops,  are  prohibitive 
to  the  great  bulk  of  the  population,  and  even  those  who  can 
afford  to  get  them  do  so  reluctantly.  The  display  to  be 
seen  every  week  in  the  Halles  Centrals  at  Paris  has  no 
counterpart  in  this  country ;  but  in  France  the  breeds  are 
studied,  and  those  encouraged  which  are  the  best  for  table 
purposes.  They  are  fattened  skilfully,  and  presented  in 
an  enticing  manner,  with  the  result  that  chickens  are  almost 
a  regular  article  of  diet  with  large  numbers  of  the  people, 
for  in  Paris  duiing  1880  the  average  consumption  of  fowls 
was  251bs.  per  head  of  the  population.  These  are  ques- 
tions which  require  to  be  dealt  with  in  detail,  and  cannot 
be  more  than  mentioned  in  wdiat  is  simply  an  introductory 
chapter.  That  there  is  much  for  our  home  producers  to  learn 
no  one  can  doubt,  and  it  shall  be  our  endeavour  to  supply 
in  a  practical  form  the  latest  and  best  information  upon  so 
important  a  subject.  Our  object  is  to  stimulate  those  who 
have  the  necessary  space  at  their  disposal  to  take  advantage 


Gene^'-al  Considerations,  1 7 

of  their  opportunities,  and  not  continue  supinely  to  ignore, 
or  from  prejudice  to  neglect  that  which,  well  managed,  must 
prove  a  source  of  profit.  Farmers  and  villagers  will  find 
the  help  they  need,  but  we  shall  not  overwhelm  them  by  too 
much  of  detail, — seeking  to  be  practical  -first  of  all.  We 
shall  also  show  how  suburban  residents  and  others  may 
supply  their  own  tables,  and,  in  fact,  endeavour  to  make  our* 
remarks  such  as  shall  be  valuable  to  all  who  may  read  them.- 


i^  FrofUable  Poultry  Keeping, 


CHAPTER  II» 

WHO     SHOULD    KEEP    POULTRY? 

Who  way  Keep  Poultry — Value  of  Eggs  for  Children  and  Invalids — ^Who  should 
not  Keep  Poultry — Pleasure  in  Pursuit — Suburban  Eesidents — Size  of  Kuns 
— Cottagers  and  Poultry  Keeping — Does  Poultry  Keeping  Pay  ? 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  title  which  we  have  placed 
at  the  head  of  this  chapter  is  rightly  worded,  and  probably 
there  are  many  who  will  suggest  that  it  should  read,  '^  Who 
may  keep  poultry  ? "  This  would  not,  however,  give  as 
much  latitude  as  we  require,  for,  although  it  is  our  intention 
to  show  who  may^  we  go  a  little  further  and  say  that  all 
who  have  the  opportunity  of  doing  so  should  keep  fowls, 
whether  the  number  kept  be  great  or  small.  It  is  a  direct 
benefit  to  the  individual  to  have  fresh  eggs  to  place  upon 
the  table,  and  what  is  good  for  the  individual  must  be  good 
also  for  the  nation,  and  where  there  are  children  in  a  house- 
hold nothing  can  be  better  than  eggs  for  them.  The 
natural  object  for  which  eggs  are  laid  is  not  to  provide  food 
for  human  beings,  but  to  multipl}^  the  race,  and  the  egg 
contains  within  itself  all  the  material  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  the  bird  and  for  its  support  during  the  process. 
Thus,  there  can  be  no  question  that  eggs  are,  in  the  same 
way  as  milk  is,  most  suitable  for  children's  food,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  find  in  any  other  substance  of  equal  bulk 
nutriment  so  equably  mixed.  We  indirectly  intimated  in 
the  first  chapter  that  as  the  egg  gets  older  decomposition 


Who  shottld  Keep  Poitltryf  19 

sets  in,  thougli  it  may  not  be  noticed,  and  much  of  the 
virtue  is  gone  out  of  it  after  a  few  days.  The  fact  that 
chickens  hatched  from  stale  eggs  are  never  so  strong  as 
those  from  perfectly  fresh  ones,  and  that  the  fresher  the 
^^%  the  stronger  the  chick  will  be,  is  corroborative  of  this. 
"VVe  believe,  therefore,  that  where  eggs  can  enter  largely 
into  the  food  of  children  they  will  prove  of  incalculable 
benefit  to  them,  that  is,  if  given  perfectly  fresh.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that,  apart  from  tiny  selfish  motive  or  desire 
for  pecuniary  gain,  where  there  are  children  in  the  house- 
hold, it  is  very  desirable  indeed  that  fowls  should  be  kept 
if  there  is  accommodation  for  them.  Daring  sickness  also, 
or  for  invalids,  they  are  invaluable,  and  we  well  remember 
how  a  lady  friend  was  kept  alive  through  a  long  and  severe 
illness  by  eggs  we  were  able  to  supply  her  from  our  own 
yard.  When  appetite  failed  for  everything  else,  she  could 
always  eat  an-  Q^g ;  and  the  doctor  said  that  she  could 
not  possibly  have  recovered  had  it  not  been  for  the  support 
thus  afforded. 

This  naturally  leads  us  on  to  the  question,  "  Who  should 
keep  poultry?  "and  perhaps  we  can  best  answer  it  in  the 
first  place  by  seeing  who  should  not  keep  them.  We  ha\0 
often  known  birds  kept  in  the  most  unlikely  places — in 
dark,  damp  cellars,  in  attics  or  rooms,  in  close  unhealthy 
sheds,  and  on  ground  that  is  damp  if  not  actually  wet. 
The  ingenuity  of  man  is  very  great,  and  he  often  makes 
experiments  in  the  keeping  of  live  stock  which  may  com- 
mand our  admiration  because  of  their  verj^  audacity,  but 
which  we  can  see  are  doomed  to  failure.  Certainly  we 
should  no  more  like  to  eat  an  egg  laid  by  a  bird  living  in 
such  places  as  these,  than  we  shoukl  care  for  milk  from 
cows  kept  in  close,  badly-ventilated  town  sheds,  or  bread 
out  of  some  uncleanly  bakehouse.  It  may  be  assumed, 
therefore,  that  we  do  not  advocate  the  keeping  of  fowls  in 

c  2 


20  Pi'ojiiable  Potdhy  Keeping. 

unhealthy  places,  and  that  unless  there  can  be  provided  a 
reasonable  amount  of  open  space,  a  light,  comfortable,  dry, 
and  well  ventilated  house,  it  is  much  better  to  do  without 
the  birds  altogether,  and  trust  to  buying  eggs  from  those 
who  have  more  favourable  oj^portunities  for  keeping  them. 
Natural  laws  must  be  respected  if  success  is  to  be  attained, 
and  we  need  to  remember  that  fowls  when  wild  are  accus- 
tomed to  live  always  in  the  open  air,  to  have  perfect  freedom, 
and  if  we  entirely  reverse  these  conditions  we  cannot  reason- 
ably expect  to  do  so  without  paying  the  penalty.  Domes- 
tication undoubtedly  means  an  alteration  of  the  habits  of 
the  birds,  but  we  must  make  this  alteration  as  small  as 
possible,  and  the  less  it  is  the  more  likely  are  we  to  keep 
them  healthy  and  thriving.  Some  breeds  are  stronger  and 
can  stand  the  change  in  their  natural  habits  better  than 
others,  and  it  is  always  well  for  the  poultry-keeper  to  select 
such  if  his  desire  is  to  make  his  poultry "  pay.  We  shall 
show  which  breeds  these  are  later  on. 

There  is  another  consideration  which  will  affect  those 
who  only  wish  to  keep  a  few  fowls,  and  that  is  the  pleasure 
and  healthfulness  of  the  pursuit.  How  many  there  are 
whose  occupations  compel  them  to  be  indoors  all  day,  and 
they  know  that  exercise  is  necessary  to  preserve  their  health. 
They  find  it  most  difficult,  however,  to  go  out  when  they 
have  no  direct  object  in  view.  Walking,  especially  alone, 
soon  gets  wearisome  ;  or  perhaps  every  spot  of  the  district 
around  has  been  explored,  and  the  result  often  is  that  the 
exercise  is  not  taken.  The  keeping  of  poultry  has  been 
to  many  a  very  great  boon  in  this  way,  compelling  regular 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  we  recently  met  with  an 
eminent  scientific  man  who  had  taken  up  the  pursuit  as 
a  hobby,  on  this  account  alone.  We  know  that  in  our  own 
case  it  was  so,  and  we  found  not  only  pleasure  but  renewed 
health  and  strength  whilst  attending  to  our  feathered  pets. 


Conveniences  requisite,  21 

Commencing  with  those  who  only  desire  to  supply  their 
own  table,  there  are  hundreds  of  cottagers  and  suburban 
residents  in  the  outskirts  of  our  great  towns,  as  T/ell  as 
in  the  country  at  large,  who  might  keep  fowls  very  easily 
indeed.  Recent  years  have  marked  a  great  improvement 
in  the  houses  built  in  both  town  and  country,  so  far  as 
open  yards  or  gardens  attached  to  them  are  concerned, 
and  in  a  few  years  we  hope  to  see  all  those  dwellings  done 
away  with,  where  the  back  yards  are  just  about  the  size  of 
a  decent  scullery.  Taking  the  smaller  houses  first,  if  the 
yard  or  back  garden  be  a  good  sized  one  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  give  a  piece  of  it,  say  about  12ft.  or  15ft.  long 
by  6ft.  wide,  for  the  purpose  of  a  poultry  house  and  run, 
which  will  be  amply  sufficient  for  half-a-dozen  fowls.  How 
to  build  the  house  and  prepare  the  run  we  shall  describe  in  due 
course,  the  cost  of  which  need  not  be  very  great,  whilst  the 
pleasure  and  benefit  will  be  incalculable.  Suburban  residents 
have  generally  a  good  strip  of  ground  behind  their  houses^ 
and  sufficient  can  often  be  spared  to  keep  from  half-a-dozen  to 
a  score  fowls,  or  even  more  where  the  place  is  an  extensive 
one.  If  economy  is  no  object,  then  the  houses  and  runs  can 
be  made  ornamental,  and  will  add  much  to  the  appearance 
of  the  garden  or  grounds.  For  these  also,  w^e  shall  have 
something  to  say  in  the  way  of  instructions  as  to  how  the 
yard  should  be  laid  out  and  the  houses  built.  Then  again 
as  to  cottagers,  there  are  few  in  country  places  who  could 
not  keep  a  score  of  fowls  and  rear  half  a  hundred  chickens 
during  the  year.  Any  man  handy  with  tools  can  easily 
make  houses  and  necessary  appliances,  or  adapt  existing 
outhouses  for  the  purpose,  and  at  a  very  small  cost. 
Ground  is  generally  to  be  had  at  a  low  cost,  but  there  are 
more  often  fields  near  over  which  the  birds  can  wander  with- 
out doing  any  harm,  and  this  more  than  doubles  the  accom- 
modation without  any  proportionate  cost.     But  that  is  not 


22  Profitable  Poidtiy  Keeping, 

all,  for  birds  at  liberty  can  pick  up  tbe  greater  portion  of 
their  living,  and  we  are  sure  every  cottager  might  make  a 
considerable  addition  to  his  income  by  the  keeping  of  fowls. 
In  France  the  small  farmers  and  cottagers  are  they  who 
keep  the  poultry,  and  supply  the  vast  numbers  of  eggs 
and  chickens,  not  only  sent  to  Great  Britain,  but  consumed 
at  home,  for  it  is  estimated  that  in  Paris  160  eggs  for 
every  head  of  the  population  are  used  each  year.  A 
cottager  can  easily  attend  to  the  birds  himself,  without 
interfering  with  his  other  work,  can  feed  his  birds  cheaply, 
can  realise  tbe  produce  quickly,  for  there  is  always  a  good 
demand,  especially  if  large  houses  are  at  hand,  or  if  in  a 
thickly  populated  district,  and  he  will  find  himself  a  happier 
and  better  man  for  his  efforts. 

We  have  now  seen  that  country  and  suburban  residents, 
great  and  small,  not  only  may,  but  should  keep  poultry, 
and  next  wo  come  to  the  farmer,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  of  all,  for  with  him  it  will  be  a  matter  of 
business,  and  he  may  produce  upon  a  large  scale  if  he  goes 
into  it  at  all.  He  has  advantages  which  no  one  else 
possesses,  having  plenty  of  room  for  tbe  birds,  food  for  them 
at  first  cost,  means  of  utilising  their  manure  which  no  one 
else  can  have,  and  can  graft  poultry  keeping  on  to  his 
other  work  without  any  great  extra  expense.  He  has  also 
means  of  getting  his  produce  to  market  at  once,  and  can 
make  contracts  with  large  consumers,  hotels,  &c.,  such  as 
a  smaller  man  cannot.  But,  of  course,  the  business  to  be 
really  successful  will  require  thought  and  attention,  which 
many  of  our  farmers  have  heretofore  refused  to  give  ;  but 
they  are  at  last  coming  to  see  that  "  there  is  money  in  it," 
and  it  shall  be  our  endeavour  to  help  them  in  every  way,  so 
that  they  may  succeed  in  their  efibrts. 

We  must  not  conclude  this  chapter  without  answering 
the  question  so  often  put,  "  Docs  poultry-keeping  pay  ?  "  for 


*'  Does  Poultry 'keeping  pay  f  23 

that  is  tlie  kernel  of  the  whole  matter,  at  least  so  far  as 
many  persons  are  concerned,  though  we  think  rich  folks  who 
only  wish  to  supply  their  own  tahle  make  too  much  of  it. 
They  are  willing  to  grow  fruit,  vegetables,  and  flowers, 
often  at  double  what  they  could  be  bought  for,  and  never 
grumble  at  the  cost,  and  if  they  like  to  expend  money  on 
grand  houses  and  rans,  or  on  high-bred  stock,  they  should 
not  complain  of  what  their  eggs  and  chickens  may  cost.  But 
to  others  we  would  say,  ^'Yes,  poultry  will  pay,  if  properly 
managed."  Cottagers  and  private  persons  can  generally 
half  feed  the  birds  by  what  is  left  from  their  own  tables, 
and  as  an  illustration  of  this,  we  know  a  gentleman  who 
at  one  time  was  always  grumbling  at  the  cost  of  his  wife's 
fowls,  declaring  that  they  did  not  pay.  To  prove  this  an 
account  was  kept  during  the  next  year,  when  it  was  found 
that  the  eggs  cost  actually  only  one  cent  each  all  the  year 
through.  Then  as  to  farmers,  we  know  a  farmer  who 
makes  an  annual  profit  of  $500  out  of  his  fowls,  and  his 
stock  is  by  no  means  a  large  one,  but  he  has  been  content 
to  make  his  profit,  and  say  nothing  to  any  one.  Every- 
where there  is  a  constant  demand  for  the  produce,  and 
there  can  be  no  question  that  poultry-keeping  does  pay, 
and  pay  well,  where  it  is  managed  in  a  common- sense 
manner. 

We  may  here  mention  that  it  is  a  most  desirable  thing 
in  all  places  where  the  poultry-keeping  is  regarded  as  a 
business,  to  keep  a  strict  account  of  all  expenditure  and 
income,  and  of  the  produce  of  the  fowls.  It  is  a  very  wise 
thing  for  all  poultry-keepers  to  do,  even  if  they  only  have 
half-a-dozen  birds  for  the  sake  of  their  eggs  ;  but  when  it 
is  a  question  of  profit,  then  we  regard  such  an  account 
as  absolutely  necessary,  not  only  as  a  satisfaction  to  the 
owner,  but  also  as  a  means  of  checking  expenditure  and 


24  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

preventing  waste.  Figures  have  a  very  deterrent  effect, 
and  many  a  man  will  refuse  to  spend,  when  he  has  to  put 
it  down  in  black  and  white,  what  he  would  be  tempted  to 
do  if  such  were  not  involved.  An  account  book  need  not 
be  very  elaborate,  though  it  should  be  completeo 


Laying  out  a  Poultry  Yard,  25 


.    CHAPTER  ni. 

LAYING- OUT   THE    POULTRY- YAED. 

Gradual  Commencement  best — Selection  of    Ground— Separate  Houses — Aspect 
of  Houses— Walls  of  Houses— Dividing  the  Yard— Plans— Chicken  Yards. 

We  do  not  assume  that  those  of  our  readers  to  whom  the 
present  work  is  specially  applicable  are  all  non-keepers  of 
poultry  at  the  present  time,  for  probably  the  great  majority 
have  already  stocks  of  poultry.  As  we  have  no  means  of 
knowing  the  present  condition  of  their  yards — and  if  we  had 
it  would  be  impossible  to  show  in  every  case  how  they  might 
be  improved,  if  they  need  improvement — we  shall  describe 
the  best  ways  of  laying  out  a  poultry-yard,  of  erecting  the 
houses  or  adapting  existing  buildings,  and  by  this  means  it 
will  be  very  easy  for  the  reader  to  apply  the  hints  given 
to  his  own  needs  and  requirements.  Of  course,  those  who 
contemplate  commencing  the  keeping  of  fowls,  or  of  laying 
out  a  new  yard  entirely,  will  find  it  easy  sailing  to  adapt 
the  plans  we  shall  describe.  It  must  not  be  thought, 
however,  that  we  advise  any  one  to  commence  poultry- 
keeping  upon  a  large  scale,  unless  he  has  had  sufficient 
previous  experience,  and  even  then  we  think  it  much 
better  to  begin  moderately,  and  gradually  extend  the  scope 
of  operations.  We  say  this,  not  only  because  improve- 
ments can  generally  be  made  in  the  later-built  houses, 
and  that  the  whole  yard  is  thus  more  easily  got  in  hand, 
lut   also   that   the    stock   can    be    bred    and    not    bought, 


26  Profitable  Poulhy  Keeping, 

which  of  itself  will  be  a  very  great  saving,  as  pure-bred 
birds  cannot  be  purchased  in  large  numbers.  Therefore  it 
is  necessary  to  look  ahead  a  little,  and  no  one  must  expect 
to  get  into  full  working  order  all  at  once,  as  it  will  take  twelve 
months  at  least  to  do  this,  where  the  intention  is  to  keep 
large  numbers ;  but  of  course  those  who  wish  to  keep  only 
a  few  for  their  own  household  purposes  can  buy  birds  and 
have  all  going  on  smoothly  in  a  short  time.  As  an  instance 
of  the  erroneous  ideas  not  uncommon,  we  once  heard  of  a 
brick  manufacturer  who,  through  the  depression  in  trade, 
had  some  of  his  kilns  thrown  out  of  use.  It  was  suggested 
to  him  that  if  wooden  partitions  were  placed  in  these  they 
would  make  capital  fowl  houses.  He  at  once  seized  upon 
the  idea,  and  talked  about  buying  five  thousand  hens  at  once. 
If  he  had  not  met  with  some  one  who  pointed  out  that,  apart 
from  his  own  inexperience,  his  place  was  thoroughly  unsuitable 
for  poultry,  the  land  being  strong  clay,  very  damp,  without 
grass,  and  only  half  a  mile  from  the  sea,  he  would  probably 
have  carried  out  his  plan,  and  his  enterprise  could  only 
have  had  one  result,  namely,  an  entire  and  dismal  failure. 
Those  who  by  false  statements  deceive  others  deserve  more 
than  ordinary  reprobation,  and  the  injury  done  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  immediate  sufferers,  but  to  the  nation  at  large, 
as  many  who  might  succeed  are  prevented  making  the 
attempt  from  these  failures. 

The  first  thing  to  do,  whether  the  number  to  be  kept  is 
large  or  small,  is  to  decide  upon  w^iere  the  birds  are  to  bo 
placed,  and  the  amount  of  ground  that  can  be  given  to 
them.  In  many  places  this  will  be  very  speedily  settled ;  for 
instance,  in  small  suburban  and  cottage  gardens,  if  fowls 
are  to  be  kept  at  all,  there  will  be  little  if  any  choice  of 
position.  But  where  the  ground  is  more  extensive,  as  upon 
farms,  more  consideration  will  be  necessary.  In  the  latter 
case  it  may  be  decid^.d  to  scatter  the  houses  all  about  th^ 


Position  of  Fowl  House,  2j 

farm,  and  as  this  is  a  plan  we  believe  to  be  a  most  excellent 
one,  we  shall  deal  fully  with  it ;  but  even  then  there  will  be 
some  buildings  required  near  home,  perhaps  for  breeding 
pens,  or,  at  any  rate,  for  the  chickens,  and  the  ground  thus 
required  should  be  fixed  upon.  Much  after  trouble,  expense, 
and  annoyance  will  thus  be  saved,  and  the  little  forethought 
required  will  be  repaid  many  times  over. 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  recommend  that  the  runs  for  the 
fowls  should  be  laid  out  before  the  houses  are  built,  for  this 
would  be  a  most  foolish  plan,  as  the  fencing,  if  any  is 
needed,  and  the  carefully  laid  out  ground  would  be  damaged ; 
but  before  building  it  is  certainly  advisable  to  have  a  clear 
idea  of  where  the  houses  are  to  be  placed,  and  whether  the 
runs  will  be  the  most  suitable  ones.  Nothing  is  easier  than 
to  have  a  house  built,  to  fence  in  a  piece  of  ground,  and  to 
put  a  dozen  hens  in  ?t ;  but  whether  it  is  in  the  best  position 
will  have  much  to  do  with  the  result,  so  far  as  the  produce 
and  health  of  the  birds  are  concerned.  So  apparently  slight 
a  matter  as  the  house  facing  south  or  east  will  make  a  very 
great  difference  in  the  supply  of  eggs ;  and  hence  the  neces- 
sity for  care  in  the  selection  of  the  ground  and  position  of 
the  house  and  run.  Whenever  anything  else  can  be  done, 
and  there  are  very  few  instances  where  this  cannot  be 
arranged,  the  front  of  a  house  should  never  face  north,  north- 
east or.  north-west ;  or,  at  any  rate,  the  doors  and  windows 
should  not  look  in  any  of  these  directions.  We  all  know 
how  penetrating  the  winds  are  from  these  quarters,  and 
whilst  they  are  blowing  the  house  will  be  cold  indeed,  thus 
acting  unfavourably  upon  the  laying  and  fattening  qualities. 
A  house  with  a  southern  frontage  gets  all  the  sun  there  is 
about — a  most  important  matter  in  the  late  autumn,  winter, 
and  early  spring,  when  every  ray  that  can  be  secured  is  oJ 
decided  advantage.  It  almost  surpasses  belief  the  difference 
in  temperature  between  a  house  fronting  north  and  one  front* 


28  Profitable  Potdhy  Keeping, 

ing  south,  for,  whilst  the  latter  will  be  comfortable,  even 
on  those  days  when  but  little  of  the  sun  has  been  seen, 
the  former  will  be  cold  and  comfortless.  Practical  ex- 
perience has  led  us  to  make  a  strong  point  of  this,  as  we 
know  the  value  of  having  the  house  in  a  sheltered  position, 
and  this  is  one  of  the  little  things  that  needs  to  be  thought 
of  before  a  house  is  erected,  as  it  cannot  be.  easily  remedied 
afterwards.  Of  course  there  are  some  places  where  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  a  southern  or  southerly  aspect,  and  then 
the  best  must  be  made  of  existing  circumstances.  Even  in 
such  a  case  as  this,  by  a  little  planning  much  can  be  done, 
and  we  some  time  ago  visited  a  poultry  yard,  the  grass  run 
of  which  was  in  a  cold  and  bleak  place,  with  an  aspect  almost 
due  north.  Here  a  substantial  stone  wall  ran  down  one  side 
of  the  field,  and  the  houses  were  built  on  the  south  side  of 
this  wall,  the  covered  runs  being  on  the  other  side,  and  the 
two  connected  by  trap-holes  in  the  wall.  The  effect  of  such 
a  plan  as  this  is  very  great,  the  temperature  in  the  houses 
being  several  degrees  higher  than  if  they  were  on  the  north 
side,  and  thus  much  of  the  disadvantage  of  a  north  or  east 
aspect  can  be  overcome.  If  no  other  plan  can  be  adopted, 
we  would  make  the  doors  and  windows  at  the  one  least 
exposed  side  or  end  of  the  house,  having  no  opening  on 
the  other  sides,  but  even  when  this  is  done  the  walls  will 
need  to  be  thicker  than  they  would  if  in  a  more  favourable 
position. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  we  should  advise  that  a  brick  or 
stone  wall  should  be  made  the  back  of  the  house,  as  this  is 
a  great  protection  and  support  to  the  erection,  and  also  gives 
additional  warmth,  as  well  as  being  a  saving  in  cost.  If  this 
wall  be  part  of,  or  next  to  a  stable,  a  cow-shed,  a  greenhouse, 
an  engine-shed,  or  even  a  dwelling,  the  warmth  derived  will 
be  highly  beneficial.  We  have  repeatedly  known  instances 
where  large  numbers  of  eggs  have  been  got  in  the  severest 


Planning  Poultry  Runs.  29 

weather,  simply  because  the  fowls'  roosting-place  adjoined  a 
stable  or  cow-house.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  reason 
v^^hy  fowls  do  not  lay  so  well  in  cold  weather  is  that  much  of 
the  natural  heat  usually  expended  upon  egg-production  and 
flesh-forming  is  required  to  make  up  for  the  more  rapid 
exhaustion  of  that  heat,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  value  of  such 
an  arrangement  as  we  have  suggested  is  very  great. 

Supposing,  therefore,  that  the  place  has  been  chosen  in 
accordance  with  what  we  have  already  stated,  then  the 
amount  of  ground  and  the  number  of  divisions  into  which 
it  has  to  be  partitioned  out  must  be  decided  upon.  If  a 
number  of  breeds  are  to  be  kept,  and  there  is  not  sufficient 
ground  at  command  to  scatter  them  widely  apart,  then  the 
decision  as  to  the  number  of  runs  to  be  given  should  be 
very  carefully  made,  and  it  will  be  much  better  to  limit 
the  number  than  to  cramp  the  birds.  Birds  which  are 
only  required  for  supplying  eggs  can  no  doubt  be  kept  in 
confined  runs,  but  breeding  stock  should  have  good  large 
runs,  or  their  eggs  will  not  hatch  so  well,  nor  the  progeny 
be  so  vigorous  and  strong.  In  many  places  a  large  grass 
field  is  allotted  to  the  fowls,  and  on  one  side  of  this  a  row 
of  houses  and  sheds  are  built,  each  having  a  gravel  run — 
say  twenty  yards  long  by  three  or  four  yards  wide — and 
the  various  flocks  of  birds  are  allowed  in  the  grass  field  by 
turn  throughout  the  day.  This  is  a  capital  plan  where  it 
can  be  adopted,  and  we  recommend  it  to  our  readers  ;  but 
if  runs  can  be  given  to  each  breeding  pen  twenty  yards 
square,  two-thirds  grass  and  one-third  gravel,  they  will  do 
equally  as  well.  The  first-named  plan  is  advantageous  in 
one  way — namely,  that  the  houses  can  be  all  placed  together, 
and  if  a  passage  runs  behind,  the  birds  can  be  seen  at 
night,  or  the  houses  cleaned  without  going  into  the  open 
air.  And  as  they  can  also  be  used  for  chickens  as  well  as 
for   the   breeding   stock,   this  will   be  found   a    very   great 


30  Profitable  Potdtry  Keeping. 

advantage,  as  the  early  chicks  require  to  he  attended  to  late 
at  nights,  and  very  early  in  the  mornings.  The  chief  danger 
of  this  plan  is  the  tainting  of  the  ground  resulting  from 
the  droppings  of  the  fowls,  which  is  in  itself  a  sure  cause 
of  disease,  but  we  shall  show  how  this  can  he  prevented. 

In  large  yards  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  proper  chicken 
establishment,  the  house  of  which  should  always  face  due 
south,  or  nearly  so,  and  as  far  as  is  possible  be  well  pro. 
tected  on  the  north  and  east  either  by  a  wall  or  thick  trees. 
We  shall  describe  how  this  house  is  to  be  built  in  the 
proper  place,  but  now  mention  it  so  that  it  may  not  be^ 
forgotten,  as  is  too  often  the  case.  The  run,  which  should 
be  chiefly  grass,  requires  to  be  largo  and  roomy,  and  if  it 
can  be  placed  near  the  attendant's  house,  no  matter  who 
the  attendant  may  be,  it  will  be  all  the  better.  Upon 
this  run  the  chicken  coops  will  be  placed  in  the  breeding 
season,  and  the  more  room  that  can  be  given  to  it  the 
better.  The  actual  size  can  only  be  regulated  by  each  in 
accordance  with  the  special  requirements  of  the  case,  but 
we  should  be  inclined  to  set  aside  a  quarter  of  an  acre  for  every 
hundred  chicks  to  be  reared  in  this  chicken  run,  in  addition 
to  which  other  runs  will  be  needed  to  put  the  birds  in  after 
they  leave  the  hens.  Some  of  Ihc  ordinary  runs  will  come 
in  useful  for  this  purpose  after  the  breeding  season  is  over. 


Construction  of  Buildings.  31 


CHAPTER  IV. 


POULTRY   HOUSES 


Importance  of  Ilouses— Cost— Elaborate  Houses  not  Needed — Good  Houses 
Required — Size  of  Houses  and  Runs — Adapting  existing  Buildings — Cheap 
Houses— Sheds — Houses  in  Gardens, 

Having  planned  the  yard  in  the  manner  described  by  us 
in  the  last  chapter,  and  arranged  it  in  the  way  that  appears 
to  be  most  conducive  to  the  well-being  of  the  fowls,  the 
next  consideration  must  be  that  of  the  houses  in  which 
they  are  to  be  placed.  This  is  a  most  important  subject, 
and  takes  place  in  the  front  rank  of  those  matters  which 
will  have  an  all-important  eifect  upon  the  success  or  other- 
wise of  the  enterprise.  Too  often  is  it  neglected ;  and  we 
have  known  men,  who  thought  nothing  too  good  for  their 
horses,  their  cattle,  or  their  dogs,  put  their  poultry  into 
cold,  damp,  draughty  buildings,  and  then  grumble  that  they 
did  not  pay.  Who  could  expect  them  to  pay  under  such 
conditions?  may  be  reasonably  asked.  But  this  is  only 
a  specimen  of  how  the  subject  has  been  treated ;  and 
if  any  of  our  readers  are  resting  under  such  a  delusion, 
we  must  ask  them  to  give  it  up  at  once,  or,  as  the  only 
alternative,  give  up  the  idea  of  keeping  fowls.  Without 
due  regard  to  comfort,  ventilation,  and  cleanliness,  fowls 
will  not  pay ;  but  where  these  things  are  attended  to,  and 
other  things  are  favourable,  they  will  pay. 

Much  will  depend  on  the   tastes,  and  length   of   purse 


32  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

of  the  intending  poultry  keeper,  as  to  the  cost  of  the 
houses  and  runs.  We  have  visited  at  various  times  some 
really  palatial  establishments,  where  hundreds  of  pounds 
have  been  spent  in  erections,  and  where  everything  is  of  the 
very  best  nature — planned  and  placed  so  as  above  all  to 
please  the  eye.  And  we  have,  on  the  other  hand,  seen 
yards  successfully  carried  on  where  the  crudest  and  roughest 
houses  and  appliances  are  in  use,  the  object  being  to 
secure  the  desired  end  with  the  least  possible  expenditure. 
The  fact  is,  elaborateness  has  nothing  to  do  with  success 
or  failure.  So  long  as  certain  definable  laws  are  observed 
all  will  go  right ;  and  whilst  first-class  houses  may  add  to 
the  pleasure  of  the  owner,  or  to  ease  in  working,  they  are 
by  no  means  necessary  to — nay,  we  should  say  almost  a 
hindrance  to — profit,  as  the  large  amount  needed  as  capital 
outlay  requires  a  greater  charge  for  interest  than  should 
be  laid  upon  the  concern.  This  is,  of  course,  addressed 
to  those  who  regard  the  matter  as  one  of  profit.  Those 
who  do  not,  can  freely  gratify  their  tastes,  and  can  easily 
make  more  ornamental  any  such  houses  as  we  shall  describe, 
and  in  all  probability  the  additional  cost  will  be  amply 
repaid  in  the  extra  pleasure  thus  obtained.  But  there  is 
as  much  care  needed  in  the  erection  of  grand  houses  as  in 
smaller  ones;  and  we  have  known  hundreds  of  dollars  spent 
in  erections  that  were  almost  useless.  In  fact,  there  is  in 
such  places  always  a  danger  that  utility  shall  be  sacrificed 
to  appearance,  and  against  this  we  must  utter  a  note  of 
Avarning. 

It  must  not  be  thought  from  what  we  have  said  that  we 
object  to  substantial  and  well-built  houses,  for  this  is  not 
the  case,  and  we  believe  that  often  the  putting  of  a  few 
extra  dollars  into  a  building  is  a  good  investment,  saving 
the  expenditure  of  many  more  afterwards.  Nor  must  it  be 
imagined  that   wo    think  any  plan   is   a  suitable   one,   for 


Division  of  Houses,  33 

while  we  encourage  cheapness — that  is,  avoiding  all  needless 
expenditure — we  strongly  insist  that  every  house,  whether 
it  he  new  or  old,  adapted  or  built  for  the  purpose,  made  of 
wood  or  stone,  shall  be  warm  and  comfortable,  properly 
ventilated,  and  shall  be  large  enough  for  the  number  of 
birds  that  are  to  be  kept  in  it.  Great  injury  is  done  for 
"want  of  proper  housing,  both  through  disease  resulting 
from  it,  and  in  that  it  is  a  great  hindrance  to  productiveness. 
Fowls  kept  in  a  cold,  damp  atmosphere  will  neither  lay 
nor  thrive  well.  In  the  summer  it  may  not  make  so  much 
difference  to  them,  as  day  and  night  is  then  almost  equally 
warm;  but  in  the  late  autumn,  winter,  and  early  spring, 
just  when  they  will  make  or  mar  the  balance  sheet  for  the 
year,  they  are  consumers  without  being  producers;  conse- 
quently they  are  most  unprofitable. 

The  question  of  size  of  house  deserves  more  considera- 
tion than  it  generally  receives.  It  has  been  found  by  very 
many  persons,  from  practical  experience,  that  not  more 
than  fifty  birds  can  be  profitably  kept  together  in  one  house ; 
and  though  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  if  it  is 
thought  advisable  to  erect  a  house  divided  into  several 
compartments,  not  more  than  fifty  birds  may  be  kept  under 
one  roof,  it  does  mean  that  they  should  be  kept  well  apart 
wdth  runs  of  their  own,  and  for  this  reason  we  prefer  the 
plan  of  having  a  distinct  house  for  every  fifty  fowls,  where 
the  room  is  at  command.  A  few  breeding  runs  may  be  put 
together  ;  but  for  layers  the  other  is  the  better  plan.  Why 
large  numbers  together  are  not  so  prolific  as  when  there 
are  fifty  and  under,  we  cannot  say,  and  any  expression  of 
opinion  would  be  merely  theoretical ;  but  such  is  undoubtedly 
the  fact,  and  we  must  urge  our  readers  not  to  keep  moro 
than  the  number  stated  in  one  house.  These  should 
have  half  an  acre  of  grass  run,  in  order  to  keep  them  in 
health  and  condition,  that  is,  if  they  are  to  be  restricted 

D 


34  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

at  all ;  and  those  of  our  readers  who  have  only  a  limited 
aiDOunt  of  space  at  their  disposal  will  be  able  to  decide  how 
many  birds  they  can  keep  upon  it. 

The  first  thing  for  the  intending  poultry  keeper  to  do 
is  to  see  whether  there  are  any  existing  buildings  which 
can  be  adapted  for  his  birds.  This  is,  of  course,  more 
easily  done  by  those  who  wish  to  keep  a  few  than  by  those 
who  go  into  the  matter  extensively ;  and  cottagers  or  suburban 
residents  will  often  be  able  to  find  an  unused  shed,  an  out- 
house, or  a  stable  which,  with  very  few  alterations,  can  be 
made  to  meet  all  their  requirements.  In  most  of  these  the 
floor  is  the  greatest  drawback ;  but  this  can  be  remedied  very 
easily,  as  we  shall  show  in  our  next  chapter.  Failing  such 
places  as  we  have  mentioned,  other  things  can  be  "requisi- 
tioned" for  the  purpose,  and  where  the  cost  is  a  most  important 
matter,  a  little  ingenuity  will  do  a  great  deal.  A  hogshead 
can  be  made  into  a  very  good  roosting-place  for  half  a  dozen 
birds,  if  it  is  raised  on  its  side  above  the  ground  by  bricks 
or  stone,  all  chinks  stopped  up,  well  tarred  outside  and 
whitewashed  inside,  the  upper  half  of  the  lid  fixed,  with  a 
few  holes  bored  in,  and  corresponding  ones  in  the  other  end 
for  ventilation,  and  the  lower  half  made  a  hinged  door,  and 
a  couple  of  perches  and  nests  placed  inside.  A  large  packing 
case  can  be  used  in  a  similar  fashion,  if  it  has  a  sloping 
roof  placed  above  the  top  of  the  box,  so  that  the  wet  can 
run  off  easily,  and  in  fact  almost  anything  can  be  utilised, 
as  v/e  have  seen  old  rail-car  bodies,  discarded  carriages,  and 
summer-houses  made  to  do  duty.  A  short  time  ago  we  read 
of  a  large  farmer  in  Essex  who  keeps  several  hundred  head 
of  fowls^  and  has  bought  up  a  number  of  old  menagerie 
vans  at  a  cheap  rate,  which  have  been  made  the  houses  for 
his  fowls,  and  very  comfortable  ones  we  are  told  they  are. 

The  objection  to  he  brought  against  this  kind  of  roosting 
places,  is  that  they  do  not  provide  sheds  in  which  the  birds 


Sheds  for  Shelter  in  Bad  Weather,  35 

have  shelter  during  cold  or  wet  weather.  No  matter  how 
large  and  comfortahle  a  house  may  be,  poultry  have  a  very 
strong  objection  to  spend  any  portion  of  their  time  in  it 
except  when  at  roost  or  on  the  nest,  and  the  result  is  that 
they  often  crouch  about  under  bushes  or  even  the  lea  of 
the  house,  sooner  than  go  inside.  This  may  be  very  stupid 
on  their  part,  but  there  the  fact  is,  and  we  must  recognize 
it.  Sheds  should,  therefore,  be  provided,  and  will  be  also 
useful  for  the  dust  bath — a  most  needful  provision.  In 
the  case  of  any  adapted  out-house  or  shed,  if  large  enough, 
the  outer  portion  can  be  made  into  the  shed,  or  if  not  large 
enough,  a  wooden  erection  about  three  feet  high,  and  quite 
as  large  as  the  house  itself,  with  open  or  a  wired  front, 
can  be  easily  and  cheaply  erected.  Where  a  hogshead  or 
packing  case  is  used,  it  should  be  lifted  sufiiciently  high 
so  as  to  leave  a  good  space  below.  If  the  supporting 
bricks  are  built  in  the  form  of  a  U-shaped  wall,  they  will 
be  protection  enough  ;  but  if  not,  folding  flaps  of  wood 
should  be  placed  on  three  sides  so  as  to  keep  wind  and 
rain  from  the  birds  below. 

The  small  amateur  who  has  accommodation  for  only  a 
very  few  birds,  and  must  confine  them,  would  do  well  to 
so  place  his  house  that  there  will  be  a  run  on  each  side 
of  it.  In  a  suburban  or  cottage  garden  this  will  not  be 
at  all  difficult,  and  the  house  and  shed  can  be  arranged 
according  to  circumstances.  The  object  of  the  double  run 
is  to  give  the  birds  fresh  ground,  and  thus  prevent  any 
tainting  of  it,  so  great  a  cause  of  disease  in  small  yards. 
Only  one  run  at  a  time  will  be  used,  and  the  other  can  be 
planted  with  vegetables,  which  will  be  found  to  grow  amain 
on  such  a  place,  and  be  better  and  larger  than  any  other  in 
the  garden,  and  at  the  same  time  clean  the  ground.  If  each 
run  is  thus  used  four  months  at  a  time,  there  need  be  no  fear 
of  disease.     We  know  of  an  instance  where  this  has   been 

d2 


36  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

tried  most  successfully,  and  on  a  fairly  large  scale,  with  very 
heavy  crops,  and  the  birds  kept  in  perfect  health,  though 
the  runs  are  smaller  than  we  like  to  see.  We  do  not  see  why 
farmers  should  not  make  poultry  one  of  the  series  in  the 
rotation  of  crops,  as  by  this  means  the  land  would  get  well 
manured  by  the  fowls,  and  before  being  used  again  for  them 
would  be  sweetened  by  the  produce  grown  thereon.  This  is 
a  subject  we  shall  return  to  again,  as  it  is  worthy  of  fuller 
consideration.  If  the  small  poultry  keeper  is  unable  to 
give  these  double  runs,  it  will  be  better  to  lay  down  the 
one  run  he  has  in  gravel,  as  it  can  be  more  easily  renewed,  and 
is  less  liable  to  contamination  than  earth.  But  as  our  subject 
is  the  houses,  we  must  insist  that  if  he  uses  an  outhouse  or 
any  of  the  things  we  have  already  named,  he  will  see  that 
it  is  watertight  above,  dry  below,  properly  ventilated,  and 
comfortable.  If  he  has  to  build  a  house  he  can  follow  the 
directions  we  give  in  the  next  chapter. 


Materials  of  House^  3/ 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  ERECTION  OF  POULTRY  HOUSES. 

Material  to  be  Usel— Tenant's  Fixtures — Too  Large  Houses  Objectionable — 
Foundation  — Saving  of  Timber — Frame- Work — Windows  and  Doors — 
Ventilation — Floors-- Artificial  Heating. 

Before  the  question  of  building  can  be  entirely  settled 
there  is  a  matter  requii'ing  to  be  entered  upon,  which  will 
probably  have  very  much  to  do  with  the  material  of  which 
the  house  will  be  built.  There  can  be  no  question  that  for 
comfort  and  durability,  a  brick  or  stone  house  is  best  both 
for  birds  and  owner,  as  it  is  much  warmer,  less  liable  to 
draughts,  and  more  lasting  than  a  wooden  one.  If  the 
land  be  the  property  of  the  intending  poultry  keeper,  or  if 
the  lease  is  sufficiently  long  to  warrant  a  permanent  erection, 
then  we  should  certainly  advise  such  being  built ;  but  if 
there  is  any  uncertainty  as  to  the  length  of  time  during 
which  the  ground  can  be  retained,  then  it  will  be  better  to 
put  up  a  wooden  one,  which  is  removable,  whereas  a  brick 
or  stone  erection  becomes  the  landlord's  property  if  the 
tenant  leaves.  Of  course  the  rule  we  have  laid  down  can 
be  varied  according  to  circumstances,  as  there  are  districts 
where  timber  is  comparatively  scarce  and  dear,  and  where 
bricks  or  stone  are  comparatively  cheap,  and  vice  versa. 
But  as  a  rule  wood  is  the  cheapest  material,  and  as  it  is 


38  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

easy  to  work  with,  and  may  be  made  capable  of  removal 
without  much  damage,  if  removal  is  necessary,  there  is  no 
objection  whatever  to  it,  if  sufficiently  thick  timber  is 
used  throughout,  and  the  whole  well  and  strongly  put 
together. 

The  question  of  size  is  one  that  must  of  necessity  be  ruled 
by  the  inclinations  of  the  owner.  We  do  not  mean  the 
number  of  fowls  he  intends  to  keep,  so  much  as  whether 
he  prefers  to  have  only  one  house,  or  several  scattered 
about.  We  must  confess  to  having  a  preference  for  the 
latter  plan,  where  there  is  sufficient  room  to  allow  of  it, 
but  at  the  same  time  there  are  doubtless  advantages  in 
having  the  birds  all  in  one  house,  not  the  least  of  which 
is  that  they  can  be  easily  seen  and  are  less  liable  to  be 
stolen.  Then  it  is  also  cheaper  to  build  one  house  for 
two  hundred  birds  than  four  houses  to  hold  fifty  each, 
and  even  where  the  question  of  cost  is  not  regarded  so 
closely,  a  much  more  pleasing  structure  can  bo  erected  tban 
if  divided  into  a  number  of  small  ones.  Perhaps  the  best 
plan  is  that  indicated  by  us  in  the  previous  chapter,  namely, 
to  combine  both  these  systems,  and  to  have  the  breeding, 
and  chicken  houses  near  at  home,  and  the  others  more 
widely  scattered  about.  However,  these  are  arrangements 
which  can  be  safely  left  to  be  decided  individually,  and 
our  instructions  as  to  building  poultry  houses  will  apj^ly 
to  small  and  to  large  houses  equally.  A  house  twelve  fce4: 
long  by  six  feet  Avide,  and  seven  or  eight  feet  from  Ihc  floor 
to  the  eaves,  will  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  fifty 
fowls,  and  we  should  not  recommend  that  it  be  made  larger 
than  this.  Too  small  a  house  is  dangerous,  as  the  vitiation 
of  the  atmosphere  which  naturally  results  breeds  disease, 
but  on  the  other  hand  too  large  a  house  is  equally  an  evil, 
as  the  birds  are  exposed  to  a  very  large  amount  of  cold 
air  during  the   winter,   which  absorbs  the  heat  from  their 


Dmienszons  of  House.  39 

bodies,  and  they  are  chilled  and  miserable  during  the  long 
nights.  If  the  house  he  of  a  reasonable  size,  the  natural 
heat  of  their  bodies  is  not  absorbed,  but  remains  to  support 
them  against  the  severity  of  the  weather.  These  are 
matters  which  may  not  be  so  easily  regulated  when  a  build- 
ing is  adapted,  but  when  a  house  is  built,  then  there  is  no 
more  trouble  in  making  it  right  than  wrong. 

In  all  erections  the  first  thing  is  to  get  a  good  foundation, 
and"  even  when  built  of  wood  it  will  be  better  to  put  down 
bricks  first,  these  to  stand  six  inches  above  the  ground.  If 
well  tarred  after  they  are  laid  they  will  prevent  the  damp 
rising,  and  also  protect  the  wood.  As  much  of  the  latter  as 
rests  on,  or  is  sunk  into  the  ground  should  be  well  tarred  also. 
The  timber  used  for  the  walls  should  be  tongued,  or  feathered 
and  grooved.  The  superiority  of  this  over  straight  edged 
deals  is  very  great,  keeping  out  both  wind  and  wet  more 
eifectually,  and  the  cost  is  small.  Upon  no  account  should 
the  boards  be  less  than  an  inch  in  thickness,  no  matter  how 
small  the  house  may  be,  and  where  it  is  large  it  will  be  found 
much  better  to  have  them  an  inch  and  a  quarter.  Many 
persons  commit  the  mistake  of  having  the  deals  too  thin, 
the  result  of  which  is,  the  houses  are  cold  and  easily  pene- 
trated by  damp.  A  capital  plan  is  to  make  the  house  in 
length  and  width  twelve  feet,  or  a  divisible  fraction  of  it, 
that  is,  four,  six,  or  eight  feet,  or  if  larger,  eighteen  or  twenty- 
four  feet.  The  object  of  this  is,  that  as  timber  is  generally 
sold  in"  lengths  of  about  twelve  feet,  if  any  of  the  sizes 
named  are  selected  there  will  be  no  waste  whatever,  every 
inch  being  used  up.  Of  course  the  house  can  be  twelve  feet 
long  by  six  feet  wide,  or  twenty-four  feet  long  by  twelve  feet 
wide,  or  any  other  size  that  will  be  convenient.  The  shed 
which  we  have  already  mentioned  can  either  be  a  portion  of 
the  building,  the  same  in  height  and  width,  or  it  can  be  a 
less  lofty  erection  placed  in  front  or  at  one  end  of  the  house 


40  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

proper.  Where  a  number  of  houses  are  placed  together,  it 
is  better  to  have  the  sheds  in  front  and  part  of  the  main 
building.  Such  sheds  should  be  quite  as  large  as  the  roost- 
ing house,  and  be  separated  from  the  same  by  a  partition 
made  of  the  same  thickness  of  wood  as  the  outer  walls.  The 
front  of  the  shed  should  be  of  wood  two  or  three  feet  up, 
and  of  wire  netting  above  that. 

Having  laid  the  foundatiocs,  the  next  step  will  be  to 
prepare  the  framework,  which  should  be  of  scantling,  three 
or  four  inches  square,  according  to  the  size  of  the  house  and 
the  strain  which  will  be  put  upon  the  frame.  An  extra  up- 
right should  be  placed  every  three  or  four  feet;  but  one 
horizontal  crosspiece,  in  a  wall  six  to  eight  feet  high,  will  be 
quite  sufficient.  The  framework  of  a  door  not  less  than 
thirty  inches  wide,  and  of  one  or  more  windows,  must  be  fitted 
in,  and  these  should  face  the  south  or  east.  The  windows 
are  better  when  made  to  open,  and  simply  hinged  to  swing 
outwards.  The  boards  when  nailed  on  should  be  laid 
horizontally,  tightly  clenched  down,  and  nailed  firmly  to  the 
frame,  so  as  to  prevent  any  warping.  French  nails  are 
the  best,  as  they  do  not  destroy  the  wood,  should  it  be 
necessary  to  afterwards  take  the  house  to  pieces.  A  small 
trap,  fifteen  inches  high  by  twelve  inches  wide,  will  be  required 
for  the  fowls ;  and  this  should  have  a  sliding  door,  so  that 
they  may  be  kept  in  if  necessary.  The  matter  requiring 
greatest  care  in  the  erection  of  a  wooden  house  is,  to  see  that 
it  is  perfectly  air-tight,  except  as  afterwards  provided,  and 
all  fissures  or  chinks  stopped  up.  This  is  especially  necessary 
with  the  door  and  window  fittings,  as  draughts  very  often  find 
their  way  in  just  at  these  places. 

The  roof  may  be  of  shingles,  slates,  corrugated  iron,  or 
wood,  the  two  first  named  being  the  most  suitable  for  per- 
manent buildings.  A  tin  roof  really  has  many  advantages, 
as  it  is  reasonable  in  price,  easily  fixed,  and  perfectly  water- 


Provision  for  Ventilation. 


41 


tight.  But  against  these  have  to  be  placed  the  fact,  that 
from  its  being  so  thin,  and  also  being  a  rapid  conductor  of 
heat  and  cold,  it  is  very  hot  in  summer  and  very  cold  in 
Adnter,  and  unless  lined  out  with  boarding  the  house  is 
subject  to  these  unfavourable  conditions.  If  it  is  boarded, 
however,  this  is  counteracted,  and  then  it  makes  a  capital 
roof— one  that  will  last  many  years  if  given  a  coat  of  paint 
every  twelve  months.  When  wood  is  used  as  a  roof,  it  should 
be  firm  and  well  put  together,  and  be  covered  with  felting, 


Fig.  1. — Veutilating  roof. 


which  needs  to  be  well  tarred  and  sanded  once  a  year,  thus 
making  a  warm  and  substantial  cover.  It  is  important  to 
have  a  good  slope  in  a  roof  of  this  kind,  so  that  the  water 
may  run  off  rapidly ;  and  when  this  is  done,  a  wooden  roof 
is  as  good  as  anything  else. 

The  question  of  ventilation  is  a  most  important  one,  and 
worthy  of  more  consideration  than  is  usually  given  to  it. 
The  way  often  adopted  is  to  make  a  few  holes  in  one  end 
of  the  house,   and   let   the   air  get  in   and  ou'    the   best 


4^      ^  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

way  it  can.  We  have  actually  known  houses  built  with  the 
boards  left  an  eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  in  order  to  provide  a 
current  of  air ;  but  such  a  method  partakes  considerably  of 
madness.  The  plan  we  are  about  to  describe  is  a  very  simple 
one,  and  will  cost  very  little,  if  anything  ;  it  is  equally 
suitable  to  a  single  slope  or  to  a  gabled  roof,  but  we  shall 
describe  the  latter,  and  our  readers  can  adapt  it  to  the  former. 
In  the  roof  a  small  chamber  should  be  formed,  by  nailing 
half-inch  boards  across  the  same,  about  midway  betw^een  the 
eaves  and  the  apex,  and  we  give  an  illustration  (Fig.  1)  of 
the  roof  showing  this  method  of  ventilation.  The  crossboards 
forming  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  may  either  be  closely 
nailed  together,  and  have  holes  bored  in  them,  or  be  left  a 
qnn,i-ter  of  an  inch  apart.  At  each  end  of  this  chamber,  in 
the  gables,  louver  boards  should  be  inserted,  or  a  ventilating 
trap,  such  as  can  be  bought  from  any  ironmonger,  or  a  few 
holes  bored  into  each  end  will  do,  but  not  so  well.  In 
addition  to  this,  a  couple  of  traps  may  be  fitted  about  half- 
way up  the  walls  of  the  house,  but  these  are  optional,  and 
can  be  done  without.  If  they  are  used,  then  a  square 
wooden  box,  much  larger  than  the  trap,  will  need  to  be  put 
over  each  one  inside  the  house,  having  a  very  few  holes  in,  it 
on  the  upper  side  only,  so  that  when  the  fresh  air  comes  in,  it 
will  be  directed  up  to  the  roof,  and  not  strike  against  the 
birds.  The  system  of  ventilation  we  have  described  is  a 
perfect  one ;  there  is  a  constant  current  of  air  through  the 
ventilating  chamber,  carrying  off  the  vitiated  air,  and  this 
prevents  any  draught  whatever  in  the  house  itself;  but,  at 
the  same  lime,  the  birds  always  have  pure  air  to  breathe ; 
and  go  into  their  roosting-house  at  any  time,  day  or  night, 
it  is  fresh  and  sw^eet  so  far  as  the  atmosphere  is  concerned. 
In  winter  some  of  the  ventilating  holes  can  be  stopped  up, 
as  they  will  not  be  required,  and  the  facility  with  which  the 
current  can  be  regulated  is  the  advantage  the  trap  ventilators 


Imp07dance  of  Proper  Floor,  43 

have  over  the  holes  or  louver  boards.  No  holes  must  be 
made  near  the  ground,  or  anything  done  to  create  a  draught 
upwards,  as  when  this  is  done  there  is  great  danger  of  the 
fowls  having  to  roost  midway  between  two  openings — a  plan 
which  sooner  or  later  results  in  colds  and  other  diseases. 
This  done,  the  house  itself  is  complete,  with  the  exception 
of  painting  outside  and  whitewashing  inside  ;  two  or  three 
coats  of  the  former  and  two  of  the  latter  will  put  it  in 
capital  order. 

The  next  part  we  have  to  deal  with  is  the  floor,  which  if  it 
be  damp  or  cold  will  militate  very  greatly  against  the  com- 
fort and  consequent  success  of  the  inmates.  Such  a  subject 
as  this  needs  to  be  specially  dealt  with,  as  there  are  many 
persons  who  appear  to  think  that  if  the  house  itself  is  dry 
and  well  built  the  floor  is  of  no  consequence.  Such  an  idea 
probably  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  birds  are  almost  ahvays 
either  on  their  perches  or  outside  the  house.  But  whilst 
this  is  undoubtedly  the  case,  it  must  also  be  remembered 
that  the  nests  are  generally  made  on  the  ground,  and  what 
is  of  still  greater  moment,  the  atmosphere  of  the  house  is 
considerably  affected  by  the  floor,  for  if  it  is  damp  there  is  a 
cold,  chilly  feeling  always  present.  In  our  owai  dwellings 
this  is  so,  and  all  the  efforts  made  to  warm  a  damp  house 
never  succeed  in  making  it  comfortable;  besides  which  there 
is  the  great  injury  to  our  health,  and  if  this  is  the  case 
where  warmth  and  light  can  be  freely  given,  how  much  more 
must  it  be  felt  in  poultry  houses. 

The  first  thing  to  be  decided  upon  is  that  the  floor  of 
the  house  shall  be  not  less  than  six  inches  above  the  ground 
outside.  The  object  is  to  prevent  the  w^ater  running  into  the 
house,  w4iich  it  will  do  if  below  or  upon  the  level.  Cement 
makes  a  capital  floor,  and  if  well  laid  there  is  no  danger  of 
water  standing,  or  of  a  damp  atmosphere  resulting  from  it. 
It  is  cleaned  very  easily,  and  will  not  become  charged  with 


44  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

moisture  from  the  droppings ;  but  it  is  yery  cold,  and  on 
this  account,  if  used,  should  always  be  kept  covered  with  two 
or  three  inches  of  fine  soil  or  ashes.  Bricks  are  often  used, 
and  if  well  drained  below  make  a  firm  and  dry  floor.  But 
they  have  one  very  decided  drawback,  consequent  upon  their 
porous  nature  and  the  interstices  w^hich  must  exist  between 
them,  namely,  that  they  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  drop- 
pings, and  in  time  become  impregnated  with  ammonia, 
which  reacts  upon  the  atmosphere  in  the  house,  and  is  very 
unhealthy  for  the  birds  in  it.  Were  it  not  for  this,  bricks 
would  make  one  of  the  best  floors  that  could  be  desired. 
Wooden  floors  also  are  not  to  be  recommended,  except 
where  the  space  is  limited,  when  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the 
floor  of  the  house,  in  order  to  provide  a  sheltered  run  for 
the  fowls  below,  or  wooden  floors  may  be  used  where  movable 
houses  are  adopted.  In  either  of  these  cases  only  such  a 
floor  is  possible;  but  of  course  it  must  be  kept  thickly 
covered  with  coal  ashes,  or  fine  soil,  to  be  renewed  con- 
stantly^, and  thus  kept  fresh. 

Of  all  the  floors  which  may  be  laid  down  in  a  poultry 
house,  we  have  proved  the  following  to  be  decidedly  the 
best : — In  the  first  instance,  dig  the  ground  out  to  a  depth 
of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches,  and  then  fill  up  half  of  this  with 
broken  bricks,  gravel,  burnt  ballast,  coarse  stones  or  slag, 
which  must  be  well  beaten  down.  A  compost  of  coal 
ashes,  fine  gravel,  quicklime  and  water  must  next  be  made, 
well  mixed  together,  and  spread  over  the  other  so  as  to  raise 
he  floor  to  the  required  height  above  the  ground.  This, 
when  hardened,  Avill  be  a  perfectly  dry  floor,  one  upon  which 
water  will  not  stand,  and  yet  it  will  be  hard  and  firm  in  its 
nature,  as  well  as  warm  and  comfortable.  It  is  easily 
cleaned,  inexpensive,  and  in  every  way  the  best  floor  we 
know  of.  Of  course,  ashes  or  soil  must  always  be  spread 
thinly  over  it,  as  they  should  be  upon  every  kind  of  floor,  and 


Heatmg  Poultry  Houses,  45 

renewed  every  day  or  two.  In  some  places  the  floor  simply 
consists  of  a  few  inches  of  fine,  dry  earth ;  and  where  the 
ground  below  is  porous  and  warm  there  is  no  objection  to 
this,  but  it  must  be  raked  over  everyday,  and  entirely  re- 
newed every  few  months,  or  the  air  will  be  vitiated.  Any  one 
with  a  sensitive  nasal  organ  can,  however,  very  soon  tell 
when  there  is  anything  the  matter  in  this  way,  so  that  will 
be  of  itself  a  protection  ;  but  we  do  not  approve  of  the  plan 
some  people  adopt,  of  using  carbolic  powder  and  other  disin- 
fectants so  freely,  that  their  smell  may  overpower  any  other 
one.  This  is  not  the  way  to  do.  By  cleanliness  a  house 
should  be  kept  sweet,  and  whilst  the  articles  named  are 
most  valuable  to  the  poultry  keeper,  yet  they  must  not  be 
made  substitutes  for,  but  assistants  to,  cleanliness. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  as  well,  before  we  deal  with  the  ques- 
tion of  fittings,  to  say  a  few  words  with  respect  to  the  much 
debated  question  of  heating  poultry  houses.  The  arguments 
adduced  in  favour  of  artificial  heating  are  very  plausible 
indeed,  and  there  need  be  no  wonder  that  many  are  misled  by 
them.  The  reason  why  hens  do  not  lay  so  well  in  vanter,  is 
because  the  natural  heat  or  reserve  force  of  the  body  is  more 
rapidly  exhausted  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and  there  is 
less  surplus  to  go  to  the  formation  of  eggs  or  flesh.  Thus 
it  would  appear  very  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  if,  by  sup- 
plying artificial  heat,  this  rapid  exhaustion  can  be  prevented, 
then  the  birds  would  be  as  productive  at  one  time  as  another. 
The  fallacy  of  this  is  in  the  fact  that  birds  cannot  always  be 
kept  healthy  indoors,  and  if  there  be  high  temperature,  then 
when  they  go  out,  the  sudden  transition  is  very  great,  and 
disease  results.  So  that  for  this  reason,  it  will  be  seen  that 
artificial  heating  is  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good,  except 
under  such  conditions  as  we  shall  presently  mention.  Fowls 
cannot  put  on  an  overcoat  when  they  leave  their  houses,  and 
we  know  the  danger  ourselves  of  going  from  a  heated  room 


46  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

into  the  cold  air  unprotected  in  this  way.  But  in  addition 
to  this  there  is  a  very  grave  objection  to  the  burning  of  oil  or 
gas  in  a  house,  as  they  vitiate  the  atmosphere  greatly,  and 
the  birds  having  to  breath  air  charged  with  impurities,  must 
be  injured  thereby.  This  injury  may  not  declare  itself  at 
once,  but  will  do  so  sooner  or  later. 

In  addition  to  the  methods  of  heating  already  mentioned, 
which  are  more  used  for  isolated  houses  than  those  in  blocks, 
hot  water  pipes  have  been  employed,  but  though  these  are 
much  better  than  stoves  of  any  kind,  it  is  only  a  question  of 
degree,  and  the  use  of  them  is  to  be  equally  condemned. 
We  do  not  say  that  a  gentle. artificial  heat  is  not  beneficial, 
if  it  come  from  outside  the  house,  and,  for  this  reason,  we 
recommended  in  a  previous  chapter  that,  where  possible,  the 
house  should  be  built  adjoining  *'a  stable,  a  cow-shed,  a 
green-house,  an  engine-shed,  or  even  a  dwelling,"  but  this 
is  altogether  different  to  placing  a  stove  inside  a  house,  as 
the  heat  is  then  evenly  diffused  all  over  the  house,  without  in 
the  slightest  degree  vitiating  the  atmosphere.  Even  in  such 
a  place  as  this,  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  temperature 
from  rising  very  high,  and  the  ventilation  requires  to  be  well 
looked  after. 

It  is  often  found  convenient,  where  large  numbers  of  fowls 
are  kept,  to  have  the  buildings  in  large  blocks,  and  when  this 
is  so  artificial  heat  may  be  introduced  without  much  danger, 
especially  if  there  is  a  centre  compartment  into  which  all 
the  others  open.  Here  a  fire-stove  can  be  placed,  and  if 
the  ventilation  is  so  arranged  that  the  fresh  air  can  be 
supplied  through  this  compartment,  then  the  fowls  will  get 
warmth  without  danger  of  any  great  excess  of  it.  But  we 
may  as  well  say  at  once,  that,  in  a  well  built  and  properly 
ventilated  house,  there  is  no  need  of  any  artificial  heat  what 
ever,  and  even  though  the  eggs  are  not  quite  so  numerous 
as  might  be  the  case  were  it  employed,    the  prevention  of 


Straw  Lining   Useful,  47 

future  trouble,  and  the  hardiness  of  the  birds,  will  more  than 
compensate  for  this  deficiency.  In  very  severe  weather  the 
houses  may  be  lined  out  with  straw,  but  this  is  only  needed 
where  the  walls  are  thin,  and  it  will  be  found  that  good  sub- 
stantial food  and  free  range,  will  do  more  real  good  than  any 
artificial  heat,  however  carefully  applied. 


48  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 


CHAPTER  VT, 

THE    FITTINGS    AND    RUNS. 
Perches — Nest  Boxes — Sheds— Ucfenced  Euns— Space  to  be  given — Fencing. 

The  perches  should  be  regulated  according  to  the  kind  of 
birds  kept.  For  heavy  ones,  such  as  Brahmas,  Cochins, 
Dorkings,  Langshans,  Scotch  Greys,  and  Plymouth  Rocks, 
a  foot  above  the  ground  is  quite  high  enough,  as  birds  are 
often  injured  in  flying  down  from  high  perches,  or,  what 
is  equally  as  bad,  roost  upon  the  ground  and  are  cold  and 
starved  all  the  night  through.  Some  time  ago  we  saw  a 
capital  perch  for  Brahmas,  made  of  strong  wood,  about  four 
inches  wide,  and  in  the  form  of  a  huge  "]">  ^^  three  ends 
resting  upon  cement  blocks  built  into  the  walls,  and  of  course 
lying  lengthwise  parallel  with  the  floor.  We  also  give  from 
Mr.  Tegetmeier's  Poultry  Book  an  illustration  (Fig.  2)  of 
a  capital  frame  for  heavy  fowls  to  roost  upon,  which  has  the 
decided  advantage  of  being  easily  moved.  Perches  should 
always  be  made  so  that  they  can  be  got  out  of,  and  into  the 
house  without  difficulty.  As  a  rule,  for  lighter  birds,  where  the 
perches  are  placed  higher,  fir  poles  sawn  in  two  make  the  best 
ones,  but  when  these  cannot  be  got,  oval  shaped  bars,  about 
three  inches  in  diameter  and  sawn  in  tv»^o,  are  most  suitable. 
Or  if  flat  ones  are  used  they  should  not  be  narrow,  but 
have  the  edges  taken  off.  In  small  houses  it  is  best  to  get 
thick  bent  iron  or  wooden  supports,  made  in  the  form  of  the 


Hen- Ladders^  49 

letters  U  ^^*  J  '  *^®  former  are  the  best,  as  the  perches 
are  not  so  easily  knocked  out  by  the  birds.  One  of  these 
rests  must  be  fixed  at  each  side  of  the  house,  and  the  perch 
ends  made  to  fit  them,  taking  care  that  the  poles  are  not  too 
short,  or  they  will  drop  out  when  the  birds  get  on  to  them. 

In  large  houses  it  is  much  better  to  make  a  hen  ladder, 
which  consists  of  two  stout  planks  laid  at  each  end  of  the 
house,  at  an  angle  of  about  forty  degrees,  the  top  resting 


Fig.  2. — Fiame  for  Roost. 

against  the  back  wall  and  the  bottom  on  the  ground,  or, 
of  course,  by  making  a  back  upright  to  hold  the  planks 
spoken  of,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  rest  the  same  against 
the  walls.  Or,  again,  the  latter  may  be  made  double,  like 
the  letter  /^,  with  perches  at  both  sides,  though,  for  a 
reason  about  to  be  given,  this  is  not  to  be  recommended 
except  where  there  are  windows  on  both  sides.  At  a 
distance  of  about  every  two  feet,  notches  are  made  on  the 
upper  side  of  these  deals,  of  course,  corresponding  with  each 
other,  and  into  these  the  perch  ends  are  dropped,  and  then 
the  ladder  is  complete.  This  ladder  should  face  the  window, 
wherever  this  is  placed,  as  fowls  always  roost  with  their  heads 
in  that  direction,  and  then  the  droppings  fall  on  the  floor 
without  touching  the  birds  on  the  lower  perches.  If  the 
birds  are  allowed  to  roost  the  other  way,  each  row  will  receive 
the  droppings  from  those  on  the  one  above.  Fine  soil  or 
ashes  should  be  laid  on  the  floor  below  the  ladder,  and  raked 
over  daily,  as  by  this  means  a  most  valuable  manure  is  made, 

E 


50  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

and  can  be  removed  weekly.  Whether  the  house  is  a  large 
or  a  small  one  the  perches  should  be  made  removable,  so  as 
to  facilitate  cleaning,  and  once  every  month  the  ends  can 
be  dipped  in  petroleum  or  carbolic  acid,  by  the  doing  of 
which  insects  are  kept  away  easily.  Many  people  would  be 
surprised  at  the  myriads  of  insects  which  swarm  over  birds 
when  they  are  roosting  that  are  not  so  protected,  but  dipping 
the  ends  effectually  prevents  their  reaching  the  fowls. 

Nest  boxes  will,  of  course,  require  to  be  fitted  into  the 
house,  and  in  numbers  sufficient  to  prevent  any  crowding  of 
the  hens,  or  they  will  fight  for  possession,  and  perhaps  be 
thus  led  to  lay  away.  These  nest  boxes  can  be  made  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  and  if  the  house  is  a  small  one  a  couple  of 
bricks,  a  box,  or  a  basket  can  be  used.  Perhaps  the  first 
named  is  the  best,  as  it  is  most  easily  cleared  away,  and  can 
scarcely  be  neglected  when  the  house  is  cleaned  out,  for 
the  nest  must  be  renewed  constantly  to  keep  it  suj)pliod  with 
straw.  In  such  a  house  as  this,  where  room  is  not  over 
plentiful,  the  nests  may  be  arranged  with  a  shelf  above  them, 
and  if  the  perch  is  above  that,  then  the  hens  will  be  quiet 
and  retired,  and  no  droppings  can  reach  them.  But,  of 
course,  such  an  arrangement  necessitates  great  attention  to 
cleanliness,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  most  important  to  have 
shelves  removable,  and  to  see  that  they  are  taken  out  at 
least  every  week.  We  have  found  in  practice  that  if  this  is 
not  done  the  nests  below  get  neglected,  and  the  backs  of  the 
shelves  become  harbours  for  insects,  and  dirt  of  all  kinds. 

It  may  be  taken  as  a  standing  rule,  that  one  nest  will  be 
required  for  every  three  hens ;  and  in  large  houses,  where 
forty  or  fifty  birds  are  kept,  a  different  plan  to  any  yet  spoken 
of  will  have  to  be  adopted.  We  do  not  like  nests  in  sets  as 
usually  made,  because  there  are  no  facilities  provided  for 
easy  cleaning,  rather  the  reverse ;  but  the  following  plan  is. 
one  that  can  be  adopted  with  safety : — In  a  house  for  fifty 


Nest-Boxes.  5 1 

hens  we  should  make  three  rows,  of  five  or  six  nests  in  each, 
every  nest  to  be  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  square,  according  to 
the  size  of  fowls  by  which  they  will  be  used.  The  nests 
should  have  no  bottoms,  backs,  or  fronts,  save  only  a  strip  of 
wood,  three  inches  wide,  nailed  along  the  lower  part  of  the 
fronts,  and  another  exactly  like  it  at  the  back.  The  top  of 
each  row  will  have  to  be  entirely  covered,  and  each  of  the 
two  bottom  rows  have  a  ledge  of  about  six  or  eight  inches 
wide  standing  in  front.  This  will  complete  the  nests,  and 
they  will,  therefore,  consist  simply  of  the  partitions  between 
each  nest,  the  ends,  the  tops,  and  the  strips,  back  and  front. 
When  put  together  the  bottom  row  will  stand  on  the  ground 
next  to  one  of  the  walls,  the  second  row  above  it,  and  the 
third  row  above  that.  In  order  to  prevent  the  fowls  pulling 
the  nests  over  when  jumping  on  to  the  ledges,  strong  iron 
catches  should  be  fixed  to  the  end  of  each  row  with  staples 
in  the  wall,  so  as  to  keep  them  firm  and  secure.  As  will 
have  been  seen,  the  top  row  will  have  no  ledge,  as  one  is  not 
needed  there,  but  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  sloping  top, 
or  the  birds  will  roost  upon  it,  and  thus  constantly  make  it 
foul  and  dirty.  These  nests  can  be  taken  to  pieces  in  a 
couple  of  minutes  and  re-erected  as  speedily,  the  great 
advantage  being  that,  having  no  floor,  the  moment  they  are 
removed  everything  inside  falls  out,  and  there  are  no  corners 
where  dirt  or  vermin  can  congregate.  They  should  have  a 
good  lime-washing  inside  and  outside  once  a  month,  and  this 
will  keep  them  perfectly  sweet  and  clean. 

Heavy  fowls,  such  as  Cochins,  Brahmas,  and  Dorkings, 
will  require  some  other  arrangement,  as  the  flying  up  and 
down  to  the  nests  would  injure  them  just  as  much  as  when 
high  perches  are  employed  for  them.  This  can  be  overcome 
by  placing  all  the  nests  on  the  ground,  and  having  a  sloping 
board  above  the  same  the  whole  way  round  the  house,  or, 
what   is  still   better,    make  the  top    of  the  nests    sloping 

E  2 


52  Profitable  Poultry  Keepings 

from  back  to  front,  wliich  will  eifectually  prevent  the  birds 
roosting  on  it.  In  this  case,  we  should  make  the  nests  in 
sets  of  two  or  three  each,  as  they  will  then  be  much 
easier  to  handle  when  cleaning.  We  have  also  seen  hanging 
boxes  made,  not  unlike  a  very  large  sink  soap  tray,  but  with 
wire  bottoms ;  and,  where  there  is  enough  room  in  the  house 
to  allow  of  these  being  hung  on  the  walls,  about  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  apart  from  each  other,  no  better  system 
can  be  adopted.  They  must  be  a  foot  or  more  above  the 
ground,  and  the  nest  itself  should  be  about  six  inches  in  depth, 
so  that  there  may  be  no  danger  of  the  hen  knocking  out  the 
eggs  when  getting  out  herself. 

In  the  chapter  on  "  Poultry  Houses  "  we  mentioned  the 
necessity  for  having  a  shed  in  addition  to  the  roosting  house. 
This  should,  if  possible,  be  as  large,  if  not  larger  than  the 
house,  but  can  be  open  or  wired  at  the  front.  It  must  be 
perfectly  dry,  with  good  floor,  which  may  be  the  same  as  the 
house  floor,  or  be  a  foot  in  depth  of  fine  sand.  In  one 
comer  a  hole  should  be  dug,  or  a  box  placed,  about  two  feet 
deep,  and  kept  constantly  supplied  with  fine  dry  ashes  or 
soil.  This  dust  bath  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  well 
being  of  the  birds,  and  must  be  given  in  order  to  keep  down 
insects.  Where  large  numbers  of  birds  are  kept  we  have 
seen  a  house  or  shed  devoted  to  this  purpose  alone  ;  and  any 
reasonable  amount  of  trouble  is  worth  taking,  as  fowls  can- 
not possibly  thrive  if  they  are  troubled  with  insects. 

The  question  as  to  how  much  space  is  required  to  keep 
birds  in  perfect  health  is  somewhat  difficult  to  answer,  be- 
cause there  are  some  breeds  which  require  more  than  others  ; 
and  there  are  breeds  which  can  live  on  a  grass  plot  without 
destroying  it,  whilst  others  would  eat  it  bare  in  a  month.  Of 
course,  it  is  much  better  when  freedom  can  be  given,  and 
birds  can  then  be  divided  without  the  use  of  netting  or  any- 
thing else,  thus  efi'ecting  a  large  saving  in  first  cost.     It  is 


space  Desirable. 


53 


wonderful  how  close  birds  can  be  kept  together  without  mix- 
ing one  with  the  other.  A  short  time  ago  the  writer  visited  a 
farm  where  several  hundred  head  of  fowls  are  kept,  compris- 
ing about  a  dozen  pure  varieties,  and  in  one  field  of  about 
ten  acres  two  houses  were  placed,  of  course  at  the  extreme 
limits  from  each  other.  In  one  were  Dorkings,  and  in  the 
other  white  Leghorns,  and  though  they  were  in  sight  of  each 
other,  yet  they  had  never  been  known  to  mix,  nor  even  to 


Fig.  3. — Eange  of  Poultry  Houses  and  Euns. 

approach  sufficiently  near  to  quarrel.  Probably  each  clan 
felt  itself  immeasurably  superior  to  its  neighbour,  and  that 
it  would  be  derogatory  to  associate  with  the  others ;  but 
whatever  might  be  the  cause,  the  effect  was  satisfactory  to  the 
owner.  And  under  such  circumstances,  namely,  where  there 
is  an  abundance  of  room,  for  the  farm  in  question  was  nearly 
a  thousand  acres  in  extent,  the  question  of  rans  is  easily 
settled,  as  even  breeding  flocks  can  be  kept  unpenned. 


54  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

Where  runs  are  at  all  restricted,  and  must  be  kept  within 
certain  limits,  then  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  much  ground  is 
absolutely  required  to  keep  grass  fresh.  Under  such  conditions 
it  will  be  needful  to  give  half  an  acre  to  every  fifty  fowls  of  the 
lighter  kinds,  but  rather  more  than  this  will  be  required  for  the 
heavier  breeds.  But  where  houses  are  built  in  sets,  such  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  which  is  a  capital  range  of  houses  made  by 
Bolton  and  Paul,  Norwich,  Eng.,  we  prefer  the  plan  given 
by  us  in  a  former  chapter,  namely,  to  give  gravel  runs  to  the 
houses,  and  have  a  large  field  into  which  the  birds  can  go  in 
turns  during  the  day.  They  in  this  way  thrive  just  as  well  as 
if  on  grass  always,  and  the  latter  is  preserved  and  kept  in  good 
order.  Nothing  appears  worse  to  us  than  to  see  grass  eaten 
and  trodden  down,  as  then  it  does  no  good  to  the  fowls,  and 
is  much  worse  than  gravel,  which  is  clean  at  any  rate,  and 
does  not  lead  the  attendant  to  suppose  that  the  birds  have 
all  the  green  food  they  require.  Grass  is  only  beneficial 
when  fresh  and  clean,  and  hence  the  importance  of  what  we 
have  said. 

When  fencing  is  necessary,  the  best  material  is  wire- 
netting,  which  can  be  bought  very  cheaply,  especially  if  in 
large  quantities,  and  if  it  is  galvanized  it  lasts  a  long  time. 
That  with  a  two  inch  mesh  is  fine  enough,  and  it  is  as  well 
to  get  it  good  and  strong,  as  it  will  be  found  least  costly  in 
the  end.  Where  something  more  showy  is  required,  there  is 
a  wire  fencing  made  in  sections  of  three  feet  wide,  and  six 
feet  high,  fitted  to  iron  standards  in  the  ground  by  means  of 
small  bolts.  These  are  made  in  straight  lattice  work,  and 
generally  have  ornamental  tops,  so  that  they  are  pleasing  in 
appearance.  Another  admirable  fence  is  one  easily  made 
to  order  by  any  woven-wire  works,  like  Figure  4,  the  bottom 
half  of  which  is  made  of  galvanized  iroii;,  and  the  upper 
half  of  wire,  thus  forming  a  complete  division  between  runs, 
and  being  at  the  same  time  a  first-rate  shelter  against  sun. 


Iron  Fencing. 


55 


rain,  or  wind.  The  height  of  the  fences  will  need  to  be 
regulated  by  the  variety  of  fowls  kept.  Heavy  birds  will  be 
easily  restrained  by  a  three  or  a  four  feet  fence,  whilst  most 
other  breeds  can  be  kept  in  only  by  one  six  feet  high.  Ham- 
burghs,  however,  must  have  one  at  least  ten  feet,  and  often 
that  is  not  sufficient,  so  that  it  is  better  to  clip  their  wings. 
Gates  must  be  provided,  and  it  will  be  found  advantageous 
not  to  have  too  few,  as  thus  many  a  long  walk  may  be  saved 
— ^no  small  consideration  on  a  wet  or  stormy  day ;  and  where 


Fig.  4. — Poultry  Fence. 


several  runs  join  each  other  they  must  be  boarded  up  three 
feet  above  the  ground,  if  the  fencing  just  mentioned  be  not 
used,  in  order  to  prevent  the  cocks  fighting  with  each  other, 
which  they  will  certainly  do  if  this  precaution  is  not  taken. 


56  Profitable  Poultry  Keepings 


CHAPTEE  YII. 

MORE    ABOUT    HOUSES    AND   RUNS. 

Effect  of  Confinement — Houses   on  Wheels — The  Best  Plan  for  Farias— Use  of 
Fruit  Trees  in  Runs — Kinds  of  Trees  to  Plant — Fruit  Cu.hes — Other  Aids, 

We  suppose  that,  as  it  is  human  nature,  when  restricted 
within  certain  specified  limits,  to  get  as  near  the  outer  region 
of  those  limits  as  possible,  even  though  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  room,  and  a  more  nominal  than  actual  curtailment 
of  liberty,  the  same  instinct  is  shown  in  fowls,  because,  no 
matter  how  large  a  run  may  be  given  them,  if  it  be  fenced 
in,  they  will  be  sure  to  v;ear  down  the  grass  near  the  boun- 
daries, whi]st  that  in  the  centre  will  probably  be  untouched. 
On  this  acTOunt,  where  space  is  abundant,  it  may  be  the 
best  plap  :o  use  movable  houses,  either  small  enough  to 
be  carried  by  a  couple  of  men,  or  on  wheels,  so  that  a  horse 
or  pony  can  take  them  easily  from  one  place  to  another. 
Various  patterns  can  be  seen  in  the  lists  of  poultry  house 
builders,  and  we  give  illustrations  of  two  of  these,  showing 
the  ones  which  appear  to  us  the  best  (Figs.  5  and  6).  As  is 
seen,  one  of  these  houses,  for  which  we  are  also  indebted  to 
Messrs.  Boulton  &  Paul,  who  have  made  some  of  the  best 
poultry  houses  we  have  seen,  has  a  run  beneath,  and  side 
flaps  to  afford  protection,  whilst  the  other,  made  by  Thos. 
Christy  &  Co.,  of  Fen  church  Street,  London,  is  without  the 
run  ;  but  if  the  latter  plan  is  adopted,  a  small  shelter  should 
be  made  so  as  to  stand  adjoining,  and  for  convenience  of 


Portable  Houses, 


^:^7 


removal,  it  can  be  separate.  The  houses  and  shelters  can 
be  with,  or  without  floors,  as  may  be  preferred,  but  if  the 
soil  is  clay,  or  damp,  it  will  be  much  better  to  have  wooden 
floors,  though  even  when  it  is  dry  soil  we  much  prefer  not  to 
have  them.  Of  course,  in  any  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  see 
that  the  houses  are  not  placed  in  hollows,  or,  when  it  is 
wet  weather,  they  will  be  standing  in  pools  of  water. 

Movable    houses    of  this   kind  have  many  great  advan- 


Fig.  5. — Portable  House. 

tages,  but,  of  course,  their  use  is  limited  to  such  as  have 
plenty  of  ground  at  command.  In  the  first  place,  a  much 
larger  number  of  birds  can  be  kept  than  in  a  stationary 
Louse,  as  the  ground  is  fresh,  and  they  can  wander  about 
at  their  own  free  will.  The  fowls  also  cost  less  to  keep,  as 
they  are  able  to  find  a  great  portion  of  their  own  food  in  the 
shape  of  worms,  grubs,  seeds,  roots,  and  berries.  There  is 
less  expense   for  material,  as   fencing  is   not   needed,  and 


58  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

even  though  wire  netting  is  very  cheap,  when  it  has  to  be 
purchased  by  the  hundred  or  thousand  yards,  it  adds  a  very 
considerable  item  to  the  capital  account.  Then,  again,  the 
fowls  clean  and  manure  the  land,  which  is  a  specially  valuable 
thing  after  ploughing  or  harvesting,  and  we  know  farms 
where  the  birds  are  kept  on  the  pasture  land  during  the 
early  part  of  the  year  ;  but,  as  soon  as  the  hay,  corn  or  root 
crops  are  off,  the  houses  are  immediately  moved  thereon, 
and  kept  there  as  long  as  possible.  On  one  farm  we  are 
acquainted  with,  the  fowls  are  allowed  to  wander  about 
among  both  corn  and  root  crops,  as  soon  as  the  plants  are 


Fig.  C  — Christy's  Portable  House. 

about  twelve  and  six  inches  respectively  above  the  ground ;  and 
the  owner  informs  us  that  the  injury  done  is  really  nominal, 
•whilst  the  benefit  is  very  great.  Fortunately,  the  time  of  year 
when  the  number  of  birds  is  greatest,  is  during  the  late  summer 
and  early  autumn,  when  the  land  is  most  at  liberty,  and  thus 
the  poultry  do  not  hamper  or  hinder  the  other  work  of  a  farm. 
Finally,  there  can  be  no  question  that  birds  kept  in  movable 
houses  are  hardier,  thrive  better,  and  lay  better,  than  if  in 
confined  spaces  ;  but,  of  course,  there  are  some  disadvantages, 
such  as  risk  of  the  birds  laying  away,  additional  labour  in 
feeding  and   attendance,  and,  in   some  districts^  danger  of 


Cost  of  Movable  Houses.  59 

foxes.  The  two  former  can  be  overcome  without  difficulty, 
and  the  latter  only  needs  greater  care  and  watchfulness  to 
be  exercised,  with  the  fastening  up  of  the  birds  at  night. 

With  such  a  j)lan  as  we  have  suggested,  we  are  certain 
that  there  are  few  farmers  who  could  not  find  room  for  one 
of  these  houses  to  every  five  or  ten  acres  ol  his  occupation, 
and  the  cost  would  very  soon  be  repaid.  The  benefit  would 
be  great,  and  touch  the  part  where  every  one  is  susceptible, 
namely,  the  pocket.  We  are  not  speaking  from  mere 
theory,  as  we  know  several  instances  where  the  fowls  are  a 
profit,  both  indirectly  through  the  benefit  to  the  land,  and 
directly  in  actual  cash.  Houses  can  be  built  to  hold 
about  twenty-five  fowls  for  112  each,  or  to  hold  about  fifty 
fowls  for  120  to  $25  each,  without  wheels  ;  or  with  wheels, 
which  must  be  broad  and  large  to  prevent  their  sinking  in 
the  ground,  for  a  few  dollars  more  ;  or,  sometimes,  various 
things  can  be  adapted  at  even  a  less  cost  than  this.  We 
have  seen  old  carriages,  railway  cars,  and  many  other  things 
adapted  to  the  purpose,  and  in  one  instance  read  of  a 
number  of  old  showman's  vans  being  so  used,  and  very 
successfully  too. 

It  will  have  been  seen,  from  what  we  have  already  said,  that 
we  believe  in  poultry  farming  more  as  an  adjunct  to  an 
ordinary  farm,  than  as  a  separate  business,  with  land  devoted 
to  it,  and  to  nothing  else.  But  in  some  cases,  there  may  be 
ground  at  command,  just  sufficient  to  keep  going  a  fair 
number  of  fowls,  and  then  it  is  imperative  to  make  the 
best  possible  use  of  it.  If  rent  has  to  be  paid,  anything 
which  can  be  done  to  help  the  paying  of  it,  will  be  a  great 
assistance  to  making  the  concern  profitable,  and  at  the 
same  time  do  away  with  the  temptation  to  overcrowd  the 
ground — a  certain  cause  of  disease  and  consequent  loss. 
This,  we  believe,  can  best  be  done  by  the  planting  of  fruit 
trees,  which  may  not  be  a  new  suggestion,  but  it  is  one  which 


6o  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

has  not  been  brought  yery  prominently  forward  of  late. 
That  it  is  a  good  suggestion  few  will  be  prepared  to  deny, 
for  birds  in  a  state  of  nature  find  all  the  protection  they 
need  in  trees,  as  there  are  no  houses  or  sheds  to  shelter 
them.  But,  of  course,  they  are  not  restricted,  and  can 
keep  themselves  warm  by  exercise,  whereas  those  that  have 
not  this  liberty  must  have  some  artificial  protection ;  and 
the  plan  of  putting  birds  in  open  runs,  where  they  are 
restrained  by  wire  fencing,  without  any  corner  to  which 
they  can  retire,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  wind  and 
weather,  is  foolish  in  the  extreme,  and  we  cannot  wonder  the 
birds  do  not  thrive  at  all  well. 

It  is  best  as  a  rule,  when  planting  runs  in  this  way,  to 
use  large  fruit  •  trees,  such  as  apple,  pear,  plum,  and,  in 
suitable  places,  cobnuts.  These  are  generally  regarded  as 
a  source  of  profit  in  themselves,  for  land  is  given  up  to  them 
alone ;  but,  when  this  is  so,  they  are  nearly  always  planted 
too  closely  to  suit  poultry,  at  least  in  wet  weather,  and  thus 
ordinary  orchards  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  more  than 
occasional  or  extra  runs.  If  there  are  these  near  to  v/here 
the  poultry  are  kept,  they  will  be  a  great  boon,  as  in  such 
places  there  is  an  abundance  of  insect  life,  which  is  highly 
beneficial  to  the  birds.  They  also  provide  shelter  during 
very  hot  weather,  and  protection  from  storms,  the  chief  draw- 
back being  that  a  closely-planted  orchard  or  wood  is  nearly 
always  damp,  and  therefore  not  suitable  during  the  winter 
and  late  autumn. 

We  have  recommended  the  planting  of  large  trees,  but  as 
they  take  a  few  years  to  get  into  full  fruit  bearing  condition, 
and  cannot  be  easily  removed,  some  may  prefer  to  use  bushes, 
such  as  gooseberry  or  raspberry.  These  afford  a  capital  pro- 
tection, as  they  are  low,  and  thick  near  the  ground,  which  is 
not  the  case  with  large  trees.  They,  however,  have  one  dis- 
advantage, and  that  is,  the  birds  pick  off  the  fruit  when  they 


Fruit  Trees  and  Btishes,  6i 

are  in  the  runs.  A  capital  plan  we  recently  saw  on  a  farm, 
was  to  lay  the  runs  out  in  wide  strips,  say,  about  one  hundred 
feet  long  and  fifty  feet  wide.  Between  these  the  various 
bushes  were  planted,  of  course  being  separated  from  the 
fowls  by  wire  netting.  Here,  the  plan  adopted,  was  to  let 
the  fowls  run  on  the  ground  for  two  or  three  years,  then 
transplant  the  bushes  into  the  runs  occupied  by  them,  and 
give  the  birds  the  strips  where  the  bushes  had  been.  This 
doubtless  would  involve  considerable  trouble,  but  not  so 
much  as  might  be  imagined,  and  the  bushes  got  the  benefit 
of  the  well  manured,  and  the  fowls  of  the  clean  soils.  Soma 
such  plan  as  this,  or  the  protecting  of  the  bushes  by  tanned 
twine  netting  during  the  fruiting  season,  is  necessary  where 
small  fruit  trees  are  planted.  Or,  if  there  is  plenty  of  shelter 
from  other  trees,  runs  which  had  been  occupied  by  poultry 
for  two  or  three  years,  could  be  planted  with  strawberry  plants, 
fresh  runs  being  given  to  the  birds,  and,  we  venture  to  say, 
that  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  fruit  on  the  former,  would 
lead  to  a  still  further  extension  of  the  system.  The  benefit-, 
as  we  have  already  hinted,  will  be  twofold.  Not  only  will 
the  profit  fiom  the  frnii>,  which  can  easily  be  made  to  almost 
if  not  more  than  pay  the  rent,  but  the  land  wi  J  be  thus  kept 
perfectly  pure  and  sweet,  and  consequently  there  will  be  much 
less  risk  of  disease  among  the  stock. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  go  into  any  details  as  to  the 
methods  of  planting,  the  number  of  trees  per  acre,  and  the 
kinds  of  trees  to  be  chosen.  These  can  easily  be  obtained 
elsewhere ;  but  our  readers  having  received  the  suggestion 
can  adapt  it  in  their  own  way.  The  plan  can  doubtless  be 
considerably  developed,  and  other  things  found  to  help  forward 
the  same  end,  if  brains  are  set  to  work.  For  instance,  in  a 
yard  where  the  pens  are  divided  either  by  wood  or  wire,  the 
appearance  of  these  can  be  greatly  improved  by  planting 
creepers  about  them,  and  for  this  purpose  there  is  nothing 


62  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

better  than  the  ordinary  scarlet  runner  beans.  Near  large 
towns  or  fashionable  watering  places,  rose  bushes  would  be 
a  source  of  profit,  as  both  buds  and  flowers  find  a  ready  sale  ; 
but  each  poultry-keeper  must  consider  what  will  best  meet 
the  demands  of  the  district,  and  what  will  suit  his  place,  and 
the  soil  at  his  command. 


The  Chicken  House,  .63 


CHAPTER   VIIL 


CHICKEN-HOUSES. 


Early  Chickens — Position  of  Chicken  House — The  Attendant's  House — Grav^el 
and  Grass  Run — The  House — Floor — Provision  Against  Rats — Size  of 
House. 

In  all  large  poultry  yards,  especially  where  it  is  intended  fco 
Latch  early  hroods,  a  special  chicken-house  is  required  ;  and 
when  we  have  described  how  it  is  to  be  built,  then  we  have 
done  with  the  subject  of  houses.  The  object  of  having  a 
chicken-house  is  that  the  early  birds  may  be  protected  from 
the  bad  weather  generally  found  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year,  and,  when  properly  built,  they  can  be  kept  indoors,  if 
necessary.  Consequently,  such  a  house  must  be  large  and 
roomy ;  but,  as  it  can  also  be  used  as  a  hatching-house,  there 
will  be  no  waste  of  space  in  it.  If  the  birds  are  crowded 
they  will  not  thrive,  and  in  building,  this  must  be  borne  in 
mind. 

The  position  of  a  chicken-house  must  be  facing  south, 
south-west,  or  south-east,  and  to  this  rule  there  can  be  no 
exception  whatever,  as  it  is  an  essential  that  early  in  the 
year,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  few  and  far  between,  all  of 
them  be  gathered  into  the  house  ;  for  loss  of  this  heat  means 
more  difficulty  in  rearing.  Wherever  possible,  the  back  of 
the  house  should  be  a  brick  or  stone  wall ;  and,  if  there  is 
any  measure  of  certainty  about  the  occupation  of  the  place 


h^  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

upon  which  it  is  built,  it  will  be  worth  the  cost  of  building 
such  a  wall,  if  there  is  not  one  already  which  can  be  used. 
Of  course,  if  the  wall  of  a  dwelling-house,  stable,  or  cow- 
shed is  available  for  such  a  purpose,  co  much  the  better  ;  but 
upon  no  account  must  the  aspect  of  the  house  be  altered, 
even  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  a  warm  wall.  Heat  of  this 
kind  is  good,  but  the  sun's  natural  heat  is  far  better ;  and 
for  early  chicks  the  latter  is  absolutely  indispensable.  If 
both  can  be  obtained,  well  and  good ;  if  not,  let  the  one  we 
have  indicated  be  taken  in  preference.  Whenever  possible, 
it  is  well  to  have  the  chicken-house  as  near  to  the  dwelling 
of  the  attendant  as  possible.  In  a  plan  of  the  yard  of  Sir 
Henry  Thompson,  near  Hampton  Court,  which  appeared  in 
one  of  the  Poultry  Journals,  we  noticed  that  the  chicken 
run  is  directly  in  front  of  the  poultryman's  cottage,  the 
house  being  only  a  few  steps  away.  Of  this  we  heartily 
approve,  as  the  birds  require  very  great  attention  during  the 
first  weeks  of  their  existence  ;  and,  if  the  attendant  has  a 
considerable  distance  to  go  to  them,  he  will  be  unable  to  give 
them  the  same  amount  of  care,  as  when  they  are  close  at 
hand  ;  whereas,  if  only  a  few  steps  away,  he  will  often  go, 
even  though  his  presence  by  strict  rule  may  not  be  absolutely 
required.  As  far  as  possible  let  labour  be  saved,  and  the 
saving  will  be  far  more  than  repaid. 

It  will  be  necessary,  in  selecting  the  site  for  a  chicken- 
house,  to  arrange  it  so  that  there  may  be  a  good- sized  run  in 
front.  The  object  of  this  is,  not  so  much  that  the  birds  in 
the  chicken-house  may  have  plenty  of  space,  when  they  are 
allowed  to  run  outside,  but  that  later  on  in  the  year,  say  in 
April  and  May,  when  the  coops  are  placed  outside  altogether, 
as  they  should  be,  after  the  birds  are  a  few  days  old,  there  will 
be  room  enough  for  them.  This,  we  believe,  to  be  a  much 
better  plan  than  scattering  the  birds  all  about  the  place,  as, 
when  the  latter  is  done,  they  are  not  sufficiently  under  the 


Lnportance  of  a  Turf  Run.  65 

eye  of  the  attendant.  A  quarter  of  an  acre  will  be  sufficient 
upon  which  to  rear  a  couple  of  hundred  chickens  ;  and, 
perhaps,  if  more  than  this  number  is  to  be  hatched,  it  will  be 
well  to  divide  both  the  house  and  run,  giving  a  quarter  of  an 
acre  for  every  two  hundred  birds.  We  do  not  mean  that  two 
hundred  chicks  with  their  mothers  can  be  kept  on  this 
amount  of  ground  at  one  time,  for  that  would  be  crowding 
with  a  vengeance ;  but,  as  the  older  ones  are  deserted  by  the 
hens,  they  will  be  drafted  off  into  other  houses,  and  youngei* 
ones  be  coming  on ;  so  that  probably  there  will  be  seldom 
more  than  fifty  to  eighty  upon  the  ground  at  one  time,  and 
this  only  during  four  or  five  months  of  the  year.  One-fourth 
of  the  ground — that  immediately  in  front  of  the  house — 
should  be  laid  in  gravel,  and  the  rest  be  in  grass.  The  nicey 
and  smoother  the  latter  is,  the  better  for  the  birds ;  and  upon 
no  account  must  the  grass  be  allowed  to  grow  very  long,  oi* 
the  chicks,  in  wandering  about  it,  will  get  at  times  damp  and 
wet,  and  the  result  be  disease  among  them.  Many  ladies 
who  keep  fowls  upon  a  fairly  large  scale,  place  the  coops  out 
upon  their  lawns  during  the  spring,  and  as  the  grass  is  kept 
short,  the  ground,  generally  drained,  and  in  a  sunny  place, 
the  chickens  thrive  well.  No  harm,  but  a  considerable 
amount  of  good,  is  done  to  the  grass,  as  the  manure  enriches 
it  very  much.  We  know  poultry  yards,  where  the  grass  in 
the  chicken-yard  is  as  carefully  cut  and  rolled,  as  a  lawn 
can  be  ;  but  this  is  where  feather-footed  exhibition  birds 
are  kept. 

The  house  itself  will  best  take  the  form  of  a  long  and 
rather  narrow  shed.  It  need  not  be  more  than  eight  or  ten 
feet  wide,  and  any  additional  ground  space  had* better  be 
put  into  the  length  than  the  breadth,  as  there  is  in  this  way 
a  larger  frontage  for  the  sun  to  play  upon.  Where  it  can 
be  done,  we  prefer  the  slope  of  the  roof  to  be  to  the  back  ; 
the  chief  objection  to  this  being,  that  if  the  back  wall  of  the 

F 


66  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

house  is  of  brick  or  stone,  and  only  the  height  of  the  roof 
there,  the  roof  itself  presents  a  large  amount  of  space  for 
the  north  and  east  winds  to  play  upon,  so  that  unless  it  be 
very  substantial  the  house  will  be  greatly  chilled  in  conse- 
quence. If  the  back  wall  is  higher  than  the  roof,  then  a 
spout  will  be  needed  to  carry  off  the  rain  ;  and  the  joint 
between  the  roof  and  wall  will  have  to  be  very  well  made,  or 
the  water,  and  snow  especially,  will  find  its  way  through,  and 
thus  make  the  inside  of  the  house  damp.  Another  object  in 
having  the  house  this  shape,  is,  that  nearly  all  the  frout — that 
is  from  the  roof  to  within  a  foot  of  the  floor — should  be  of 
glass,  the  same  as  in  an  ordinary  green  house ;  for,  by  this 
means,  the  birds  inside  will  receive  benefit  from  the  sun, 
though  it  may  shine  only  for  a  moment  or  two,  and  at 
the  same  time  be  effeotually  protected  from  the  weather 
outside,  no  matter  what  it  may  be.  Even  on  a  winter's  day, 
when  there  is  no  sun  at  all,  a  house  facing  the  south,  having  a 
glass  front,  with  a  substantial  back  wall,  will  be  many 
degrees  warmer  than  one  facing  the  other  way;  and  birds 
will  be  quite  comfortable  in  it,  whilst  they  would  be  chilled 
and  miserable  in  the  other.  If  it  is  not  thought  advisable 
to  have  the  slope  to  the  back,  but  the  other  way,  then  the 
front  must  be  of  glass,  as  already  stated ;  and  it  will  be  as 
well  to  have  glass  windows  (about  three  feet  square)  in  the 
roof,  at  the  lowest  part  of  it,  divided  by,  say,  three  feet 
of  the  roof  itself,  so  that  in  a  house  twelve  feet  long 
there  would  be  two  windows  in  the  roof.  If  the  house 
faces  south,  a  window  can  be  inserted  in  each  end,  near 
the  front ;  if  south-east,  in  the  v\'estern  end  only ;  and  if 
south-west,  in  the  eastern  end  only.  Portions  of  the  frout 
of  the  house  should  be  made  to  open,  so  that  in  fine  weather 
the  birds  can  get  in  and  out  quite  easily.  A  large  door  will, 
of  course,  be  wanted  ;  and  it  will  be  worth  the  extra  cost 
to  have  water  spouting  put  round  the  roof,  as  thus  the  drip- 


Defence  against  Rats,  67 

pings  from  the  same  will  not  fall  on  to  the  birds,  nor  yet 
saturate  the  ground  in  front  of  the  house. 

The  floor  of  the  house  should  be  dug  out  to  a  considerable 
depth,  especially  if  the  soil  is  at  all  clayey  in  its  nature, 
and  filled  in,  first  with  a  few  inches  of  rubble  stones,  and 
then  levelled  up  with  dry  sand.  If  rats  are  troublesome 
they  must  be  guarded  against,  or  they  will  make  great 
havoc  with  the  chicks,  as  we  have  known  them  carry  off  fifty 
— even  taking  birds  from  under  the  hens — within  a  very  few 
days.  Two  most  effectual  plans  can  be  adopted,  either  of 
wiiich  will  prove  a  sure  protection.  One  is  to  get  a  large 
number  of  bottles,  or  thick  glass  of  any  kind,  and  break  them 
up  into  moderate  sized  pieces,  so  that  the  rubble  stones  will 
be  almost  covered.  The  other  is  to  get  some  very  strong  wire 
netting,  not  larger  than  three-quarter  inch  mesh,  and  lay 
this  over  the  stones,  bringing  it  up  the  sides  of  the  house 
above  the  ground.  Either  of  these  must  be  done  before  the 
sand  is  put  on,  which  can  then  be  spread  on  as  before  des- 
cribed, and  a  sure  preventive  will  be  provided  against  the 
destructive  rodents.  The  wire  netting  will  only  last  about 
three  or  four  years,  as  it  then  gets  rotten  ;  but  the  glass 
will  not  be  affected  in  that  w^ay,  and  is  probably  both 
cheapest  and  best.  A  floor  made  in  this  way,  supposing 
that  the  sand  is  about  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  depth, 
is  warm,  clean,  and  not  easily  contaminated,  but  it  will 
require  to  be  raked  over  every  morning  and  all  droppings 
removed,  to  be  dug  over  twice  or  thrice  each  season,  and  be 
renewed  every  year  or  two.  Sand  is,  however,  inexpensive 
in  most  places,  and  hence  there  need  be  no  bar  to  its  use. 

The  hatching  boxes  and  coops  are  placed  on  the  sand 
(these  are  described  in  the  chapters  on  hatching  and 
rearing),  and  it  is  well  to  have  a  shelf  at  the  back  of 
the  house,  say  about  2}  or  3  feet  above  the  ground,  under 
which  the  boxes  and  coops,  can  be  placed ;  this  shelf  can  be 

F   2 


68  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

used  for  many  purposes,  sucli  as  for  an  extra  row  of  hatching 
boxes,  for  a  row  of  pens,  if  exhibition  is  to  b3  attempted,  and 
for  surplus  birds,  or  for  a  place  upon  which  to  keep  coops 
and  other  things,  when  not  in  use.  The  size  of  the  house 
is  a  question  which  must  not  be  ignored.  For  a  yard 
where  a  couple  of  hundred  chicks  are  to  be  reared,  that  is, 
if  many  early  ones  are  required,  it  should  be  twenty-four 
feet  long  by  ten  feet  wide.  In  height  it  should  be  seven 
feet  at  the  highest  point,  sloping  down  to  three  or  four 
feet  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  roof.  If  made  of  wood  it  must 
be  kept  well  whitewashed  inside,  and  painted  or  tarred  out- 
side, and  have  ^oper  arrangements  for  ventilation.  As  the 
house  will  probably  be  needed  in  bad  weather,  the  ventila- 
ting traps  should  be  made  to  open  and  close,  as  suggested 
in  the  chapter  on  Building  Poultry  Houses.  This  done,  the 
chicken  house  will  be  all  ready  for  its  inmates. 


Choice  of  Breeds,  69 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   KIND   OF   FOWLS   TO   KEEP. 

Choice  of  Breeds — Errors  in  Selection— Cross  and  pure  bred  Fowls — Breeds  to 
be  chosen — Confinement  or  Liberty — Hardy  Breeds — Non-sitting  Breeds — 
Table  Fo^fls     Sitters  and  Mothers — General  utility  Fowls. 

Before  commencing  to  describe  the  many  varieties  of  fowls, 
it  is  necessary  that  we  should  show  what  kinds  should  be 
kept  by  different  persons.  Success  in  poultry  keeping 
means,  not  only  the  proper  feeding  and  management  of 
the  birds,  but  the  selection  of  a  breed  that  is  suitable  to  the 
place  where  they  are  to  be  kept.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
question  of  what  is  most  in  demand  must  be  taken  into 
consideration,  for  in  poultry  keeping,  as  in  every  other  pur- 
suit, opportunities  must  control  circumstances,  and  circum- 
stances adapt  themselves  as  far  as  possible  to  opportunities. 
It  w^ould  be  folly  for  any  one  to  select  a  breed  that  is  most 
suitable  for  table  purposes,  in  a  place  where  eggs  are  wanted 
and  chickens  at  a  discount,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  to  keep 
laying  fowls,  where  chickens  are  sought  for  most  of  all  and 
eggs  very  plentiful.  And  it  is  equally  foolish  to  rear  birds  of 
no  breed  whatever,  which,  having  no  special  characteristics, 
are  neither  suitable  for  one  purpose  or  the  other.  This 
is  a  most  important  matter,  and,  as  an  illustration  of  the 
mistakes  often  made  in  this  way,  we  may  mention  that  we 
once  knew  a  poultry  farm  commenced  under  most  favourable 


7o  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

auspices,  situated  within  a  short  distance  of  a  large  manu- 
facturing town,  where  eggs  could  be  sold  in  any  numbers  at 
high  rates.  The  ground  laid  out  for  the  farm  was  in  many- 
respects  very  suitable,  and  the  houses  and  runs  designed 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  skill  and  foresight.  The  owner, 
however,  who  was  thus  careful  in  almost  everything  else, 
suddenly  became  negligent  when  he  began  to  stock  his  yards, 
and,  instead  of  buying  a  few  birds  of  a  good  laying  breed  and 
breeding  from  them  as  many  layers  as  he  required,  he  went 
into  the  market  and  bought  some  hundreds  of  hens,  paying 
no  regard  whatever  to  age  or  breed.  It  is  true  that  he  got 
them  at  a  less  rate  than  he  could  have  bought  pure  bred  stock, 
and  he  began  to  get  returns  from  the  sale  of  produce  at  once, 
which  he  could  not  have  done  had  he  bred  his  stock.  But 
the  returns  were  miserably  small,  the  bulk  of  the  hens  soon 
wanted  to  sit,  and  more  hens  were  bought  in  order  to  supply 
the  demand  for  eggs,  disease  crept  in  through  overcrowding, 
and  the  balance-sheet  showed  a  very  decided  margin  on  the 
wrong  side.  Disheartened  and  disgusted,  the  owner  soon 
turned  up  the  whole  affair,  a  sadder,  a  poorer,  though 
perhaps  not  a  wiser  man.  Such  instances  as  these  could  be 
multiplied  to  almost  any  extent,  and  it  has  probably  been 
more  due  to  want  of  knowledge  or  thought,  that  the  idea  has 
taken  root  that  poultry-keeping  does  not  pay 

There  is  an  idea  very  prevalent,  that  cross-bred  poultry 
are  much  more  profitable  to  keep  than  pure  bred  ones,  and, 
wliilst  there  can  be  no  question  that  it  is  a  decided  advantage 
to  cross  certain  breeds  one  with  another,  in  order  to  obtain 
specific  results,  that  is,  of  course,  if  the  crossing  is  scien- 
tifically and  skilfully  performed,  having  an  end  in  view,  this 
is  altogether  different  to  the  breeding  of  mongrels,  which  is 
so  common.  In  the  former  case  there  is  method,  in  the 
latter  there  is  none,  and  it  is  to  this  indiscriminate  crossing 
that  we  owe  the  present  degenerate  races  of  farmyard  or  barn- 


Crossing  of  Breed,  71 

door  fowls,  small,  subject  to  disease,  poor  as  layers,  equally 
as  useless  on  the  table,  and  certainly  neither  profitable  nor 
creditable  to  the  owner.  The  first  cross  may  be  useful,  if 
properly  made,  but,  it  has  been  found  as  the  experience  of 
many,  that  if  these  are  bred  from,  the  progeny  deteriorates, 
both  in  fecundity  and  size  with  every  generation.  This  is  a 
matter  deserving  fuller  consideration,  which  shall  be  given  at 
the  proper  time  ;  but,  we  have  mentioned  it  now,  so  that  it 
may  be  understood  that  when  we  speak  of  cross-bred  fowls, 
we  mean  the  first  cross  only.  Others  we  shall  designate  by 
the  only  term  they  deserve — mongrels.  The  basis  of  every 
yard  should  be  pure-bred  stock,  but  where  there  is  room, 
these  should  only  be  used  for  breeding  layers  or  table  fowls. 
If  only  a  few  can  be  kept  for  home  consumption,  then  wo 
should  advise  that  crossing  be  not  attempted,  but  only  pure- 
bred birds  kept,  unless  there  is  some  means  of  getting  the 
cross-bred  ones  at  a  reasonable  price,  with  the  certainty  that 
they  are  as  represented. 

Perhaps  the  consideration  we  must  deal  with  first  of  all,  is 
the  kind  cl  soil  upon  which  the  birds  are  to  be  kept,  as  this 
will  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  kinds  of  birds  that  can  be 
kept  thereon.  Any  birds  can  be  kept  on  a  dry,  sandy,  chalk, 
or  gravel  soil,  upon  which  they  will  do  well ;  but  there  are 
many  breeds  which  never  thrive  where  the  ground  is  cold, 
damp,  or  clayey.  On  wet,  low-lying  lands,  we  should 
strongly  urge  that  no  poultry  be  kept  at  all,  except  it  be 
ducks  or  geese.  These  will  do  well  in  such  places,  and  as 
there  is  always  a  demand  for  water-fowl,  and  at  good  prices, 
a  considerable  profit  can  be  made  where  fowls  would 
entail  a  heavy  loss.  We  regard  duck  breeding  as  one  of 
the  most  profitable  portions  of  poultry  keeping,  and  are 
surprised  that  more  attention  is  not  paid  to  it.  Upwards  of 
1100,000  is  paid  annually  to  the  cottagers  in  the  vicinity  of 
Aylesbury,  England,  for  ducklings,  and  they  have  no  more 


72  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

advantages  or  opportunities  than  are  to  be  found  in  many 
other  places,  though  higher  prices  are  paid  there  than  here. 

As  we  have  ah'eady  stated,  any  breed  can  be  kept  on  a 
dry,  sandy,  chalk,  or  gravel  soil,  and  those  who  have  these 
advantages  are  unlimited  in  their  choice.  But  on  the  clay 
this  choice  becomes  at  once  restricted,  and  we  should  advise 
that  inj^uch  a  place  the  following  breeds  be  altogether 
avoi^ed^'H-Dorkings,  Spanish,  Polish,  Creves,  and  La  Fleche; 
an(^  we  may  add,  that  it  will  be  found  Minorcas,  Leghorns, 
.Hou(3ans,  Brahmas,  Langshans,  Game,  Andalusians,  Ply- 
^'  mouth  Rocks,  Scotch  Greys,  and  Cochins  will  be  best  able  to 
Btand  such  a  soil. 

The  next  point  to  be  settled  is  whether  the  birds  are  to 
be  kept  in  confinement  or  given  their  liberty,  because  this  is 
a  very  important  consideration,  as  there  are  some  breeds 
which  never  thrive  unless  they  can  have  a  large  amount  of 
space  given  to  them.  The  worst  of  all  in  this  respect  is  the 
Hamburgh,  which  scarcely  ever  does  well  in  a  confined 
space,  and  after  it  we  must  place  the  lighter  varieties  of  the 
Spanish  tribe.  The  hardier  of  these,  such  as  Minorcas  and 
Leghorns,  are  often  successfully  kept  in  small  runs,  but  of 
course  thrive  better  when  they  can  have  a  reasonable 
amount  of  liberty.  We  need  hardly  say  that  every  breed 
does  much  better  when  it  has  freedom  than  when  cooped 
up,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  expect  eggs  to  be  very  plentiful 
without  liberty,  except  by  very  great  care  and  attention  ; 
and  hardy  chickens  are  scarcely  to  be  hoped  for  in  the  small 
miserable  pens  so  often  devoted  to  breeding  stock.  Those 
who  wish  to  keep  about  half-a-dozen  fowls,  simply  to  supply 
eggs  for  their  own  tables,  may  do  so  in  a  small  run,  but  they 
must  not  feed  them  too  well,  or  internal  fat  will  ensue,  and 
this  will  stop  the  laying  as  well  as  bring  on  disease.  The 
birds  so  confined  should  never  be  bred  from,  and  it  will  be 
found  advisable  to  kill  them  off  when  about  twenty- seven 


Laying  Breeds.  75 

months  ola.  For  such  places  as  these  we  should  recommend 
Minorcas,  Leghorns,  Houdans,  or  Plymouth  Kocks,  the  first 
three  of  which  are  non-sitters. 

The  majority  of  poultry  keepers  have  eggs  as  their 
primary  object,  and  where  this  is  the  case  they  will  do 
well  to  select  ojie  of  the  non- sitting  breeds,  for,  not  only  are 
these  the  best  layers,  but  they  give  no  trouble  in  the  way  of 
wanting  to  incubate.  Many  are  the  sorrows  of  a  poultry- 
keeper  whose  hens  want  to  sit  when  he  desires  eggs,  and 
it  is  hard  work  conquering  a  determined  bird  of  this  kind. 
These  non-sitting  breeds  are  Hamburghs,  Minorcas,  Leg- 
horns, Andalusians,  Houdans,  Spanish,  and  Polish,  v/hicb 
are  here  given  in  rotation  according  to  their  laying  powers. 
The  Hamburghs  lay  small  eggs,  too  small  for  ordinary  mar- 
ket purposes,  and  the  Spanish  and  Polish  are  rather  deli- 
cate, so  we  should  recommend  that  the  choice  be  restricted 
to  the  other  four  varieties,  which,  whether  they  be  kept 
pure  or  crossed  will  be  found  first-rate  layers  of  good  sized 
eggs.  They  are  also  very  hardy,  and  can  be  kept  successfully 
in  nearly  every  place,  unless  it  is  really  a  wet  one.  We  do 
not  recommend  to  have  more  than  two  laying  breeds,  but 
where  there  is  sufficient  room  we  should  certainly  advise  two, 
as  they  can  then  be  crossed  one  with  the  other,  if  that  is 
thought  desirable. 

Coming  now  to  those  breeds  of  domestic  poultry  which  are 
specially  characterized  for  their  table  qualities,  and  which 
should  be  kept  where  there  is  a  demand  for  dressed  fowls,  for 
in  time  quality  must  tell,  we  cannot  but  place  at  the  head 
the  Game  variety,  though  they  are  rather  too  small  for 
ordinary  market  purposes.  Then  come  in  rotation  La 
Fleche,  Dorkings,  Creve-coeurs,  Houdans,  Langshans,  and 
Plymouth  Kocks.  These  are  much  larger  than  the  Game, 
and  will  be  found  to  excel  any  other  breeds  for  quality  of 
flesh.     The  Game  crossed  with  Dorking  has  been  stated  to 


j6  ,    Profitable  Poultry  Keepi7tg, 

have  the  smallest  amount  of  offal,  to  be  very  deep  in  flesh  on 
the  breast,  and  is  a  cross  which  can  be  highly  recommended. 

In  ail  large  yards  it  will  be  necessary,  unless  the  artificial 
method  of  hatching  is  adopted,  to  have  a  sitting  breed,  and 
as  the  table  varieties  are  nearly  all  good  sitters,  one  or  two 
can  be  chosen  to  serve  both  purposes.  Some  breeds  do  not 
make  good  mothers,  and  others,  such  as  the  Cochin  and 
Brahma,  though  the  maternal  instinct  is  very  great  in  them, 
are  so  clumsy  that  there  is  great  danger  of  their  crushing 
both  eggs  and  chickens.  The  best  for  this  purpose  are  Dor- 
kings, Game,  Dominiques,  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  Langshans, 
or  amongst  cross-breds  the  Brabma-Dorking.  Thus  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  selecting  a  breed,  which  will  prove 
first-rate  mothers  and  good  table  birds. 

In  more  limited  yards  where  there  is  not  accommodation  for 
more  than  one  or  two  breeds,  and  it  is  desirable  to  have 
such  as  are  both  good  layers,  table  fowls  and  sitters,  we 
should  recommend  Plymouth  Rocks,  Langshans,  Scotch 
Greys,  or  Dominiques,  or  if  sitters  are  not  required,  then 
there  is  no  better  breed  for  the  purpose  than  the  Houdan, 
which  has  been  described  as  '*  one  of  the  best  fowls  for 
ordinary  purposes  that  we  possess."  We  have  thus  rapidly 
shown  the  varieties  of  useful  fowls,  with  the  qualities  for 
which  they  are  noted,  but  in  describing  the  breeds  themselves 
we  shall  enter  more  fully  into  the  questions  here  only  touched 
upon. 


Andalusians,  ^9 


CHAPTER  X- 

THE   BREEDS   OF    POULTRY. 

Andalusians — Asee  V—  B  mtams — Brahmas — Cochins— Dominiques  —Dorkings- 
French — Game — Haoiburghs — Langshans— Leghorns — Malays — Minorcas — 
Plymouth  Rocks — Polish — Scotch  Greys — Spanish— Silkies. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  briefly  describe  the  various  breeds, 
together  with  their  leading  characteristics,  so  that  it  will  be 
easy  to  decide  which  varieties  will  be  most  suitable  to  the 
place  where  they  are  to  be  kept,  and  to  the  requirements  of 
the  poultry  keeper.  We  shall  put  them  in  alphabetical  order 
for  easy  reference,  and  do  not  intend  to  go  into  long  de- 
scriptions, which  can  only  puzzle  the  reader,  but  will  content 
ourselves  with  a  few  particulars.  Nor  do  we  think  it 
necessary  to  do  much  more  than  mention  those  breeds  that 
are  purely  fancy,  for,  though  perhaps  very  beautiful,  they 
are  of  no  use  for  commercial  purposes.  The  illustrations 
of  the  various  breeds  we  give  are  very  correct  representations, 
from  which  the  reader  will  have  little  difficulty  in  recog- 
nizing them  when  seen.  We  would,  however,  advise  the 
reader  who  wishes  to  see  for  himself  the  various  breeds,  to 
visit  some  poultry  show,  as  he  will  then  be  able  to  verify 
and  confirm  his  own  ideas  on  them. 

Andalusians. 

This  is  one  of  the  leading  varieties  of  the  Spanish  group, 
and  is  sometimes  known  by  the  name  of  Blue  Spanish.     The 


J 

Zo  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

appearance  of  all  this  group  has  been  well  described  as  fol- 
lows : — A  close,  compact,  smallish- sized  body,  placed  upon 
legs  of  a  good  length ;  the  neck  rather  long,  with  a  fine 
head ;  a  large,  upright- single  comb  in  the  cock,  and  in  the 
hen  also  large,  but  falling  over  on  one  side  :  and  the  cocks 
have  large  sickle-shaped  tails.  Of  course  the  colour  of 
plumage,  legs,  &c.,  are  different  in  the  several  varieties,  but 
the  general  appearance  is  as  here  described. 

In  Andalusians  the  plumage  is  slate-coloured,  but  on  the 
cock's  neck  and  back  it  is  dark  purple  or  nearly  black.  The 
birds  are  of  a  good  size,  are  prolific  layers  of  large  white 
eggs,  are  precocious  as  chickens,  very  hardy,  bear  confine- 
ment well,  are  fair  table  birds  when  young,  can  be  kept  on 
all  fairly  dry  soils,  and  are  non-sitters.  In  selecting  birds 
attention  should  be  paid  to  size,  to  erectness  of  carriage ; 
and  any  white  on  the  face,  which  ought  to  be  red,  should  be 
avoided,  as  this  indicates  a  cross  with  the  black  Spanish. 

ASEELS. 

These  are  Indian  game  cocks,  used  in  that  country  for 
fighting  purposes.  They  are  good  in  flesh,  but  very  poor 
layers,  and  so  savage  that  they  are  not  to  be  recommended, 
and,  therefore,  we  need  not  say  more  respecting  them. 

Bantams. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  Bantams  is  very  great,  and 
shows  every  sign  of  increasing,  for  experiments  are  constantly 
being  made  in  order  to  obtain  miniature  specimens  of  the  larger 
breeds.  As  a  rule  they  are  simply  small  specimens,  though 
in  some  cases  some  differences  can  be  discerned.  We  only 
give  illustrations  of  two  varieties,  the  white  and  the  Japanese, 
as  all  Bantams  are  purely  ''fancy"  fowls,  being  popular 


Brahmas,  83 

chiefly  because  of  their  beauty,  and  that  they  can  be  kept  in 
places  where  large  fowls  cannot,  as  well  as  from  the  fact 
that  they  make  capital  pets.  In  the  Game  section  there 
are  all  the  varieties  known  in  large  game,  and  in  the  other 
section  we  find  Blacks  (like  Black  Hamburghs),  Whites, 
Gold  and  Silver  Sebrights  (or  laced),  Japanese,  Cuckoos, 
Pekins,  &c.,  but  as  they  have  no  commercial  value  we  need 
not  do  more  than  mention  their  names. 


Brahmas. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  breeds  of  poultry  is  the 
Brahma,  and  from  an  exhibitor's,  or  fancier's  point  of  view, 
perhaps  the  most  valuable.  Two  hundred  dollars  has  been 
occasionally  paid  for  a  first-class  bird,  and  eggs  from  such 
are  almost  literally  worth  their  weight  in  gold ;  but,  of  course, 
there  are  plenty  of  good  ones  to  be  had  at  reasonable  prices. 
It  is  undoubtedly  a  manufactured  breed,  and  for  some  years 
there  was  a  great  controversy  as  to  its  origin.  At  the  first 
it  was  not  very  attractive  in  appearance  ;  but  this  was  in  time 
remedied,  and  of  late  years  it  has  been  so  carefully  and 
skilfully  bred,  that  its  characteristics  are  firmly  fixed  and 
clearly  defined.  It  is  chiefly  valuable  for  its  great  size  and 
hardiness,  and  for  laying  well  in  winter,  although  the  eggs 
are  often  small  and  disproportionate  to  the  size  of  the  fowls 
themselves,  but  they  are  rich  in  quality,  next  in  this  respect 
to  cochins.  They  are  buff  in  color,  and  with  many  purchas- 
ers this  is  a  decided  attraction. 

Brahmas  cannot  be  regarded  as  first-class  table  fowls,  so 
far  as  quality  of  flesh  is  concerned,  having  the  flesh  laid 
more  on  to  the  legs  than  the  breast,  which  is  always  a  dis- 
advantage ;  but  when  they  are  young  they  are  by  no  means 
to  be  despised,  especially  when  their  size  is  considered.  For 
a  family  fowl  they   are  unequalled,  and    a    large  Brahraa 


84  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

chicken  is  sufficient  for  the  dinner  of  a  moderate  sized 
family.  For  crossing  purposes  they  are  very  useful,  when 
tahle  fowls  are  in  view,  and  we  shall  have  occasion  to  recom- 
mend them  for  that  purpose. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Brahmas,  the  dark  and  the 
light,  of  which  we  give  three  illustrations.  Both  of  these  are 
alike,  save  in  colour.  The  shape  of  a  good  bird  is  most  pleas- 
ing, as  they  are  well-proportioned  and  very  handsome ;  the 
heavily-feathered  legs,  the  deep  massive  bodies,  the  neat 
heads,  with  small  pea-combs,  all  combine  to  complete  the 
effect.  They  are  capital  sitters  and  mothers — though  when 
old,  rather  clumsy  and  heavy  for  this  purpose,  are  very  docile, 
can  be  kept  on  almost  any  soil  that  is  not  absolutely  always 
wet,  are  fairly  good  as  layers,  and  whilst  they  should  have  a 
fair  amount  of  liberty  they  do  not  require  very  extensive 
runs,  and  can  always  be  kept  within  bounds  by  a  three- foot 
fence. 

Cochins. 

At  one  time  this  was  the  most  popular  breed  of  all,  and 
there  are  mauy  now  living  who  can  remember  the  Cochin 
mania  of  thirty  years  ago.  Fabulous  sums  were  then 
given  for  both  eggs  and  chickens,  sums  which  are  not  ex- 
ceeded by  the  high  prices  now  obtained,  and  poultry  shows 
were  at  that  time  crowded  by  the  fashion  and  beauty  of  the 
period,  and  were  mines  of  wealth  to  the  promoters.  It 
was  expected  that  the  hens  would  lay  two  or  three  eggs 
a  day,  and  many  persons  invested  their  money  in  them  in 
the  hope  of  thus  making  a  fortune.  But  the  breed  was 
never  worth  the  fuss  made  about  it,  and  soon  subsided 
into  the  background,  so  far  as  its  commercial  qualities  were 
concerned.  Cochins  somewhat  resemble  Brahmas  in  shape 
and  appearance,  but  have  more  abundant  feather,  and  are 
rather  rounder.     They  are  fairly  good  as  winter  layers,  but 


COCHIN   COCK. 


COCHIN  HEN. 


Cochins,  89 

in  the  spring  and  summer  are  so  continually  broody  that 
very  few  eggs  indeed  are  obtained  from  them.  In  fact,  they 
are  the  most  inveterate  sitters  of  all  fowls,  and  on  this 
account  cannot  be  recommended  ;  for  sit  they  will,  and  when 
they  will,  choosing  all  kinds  of  unlikely  articles  if  they 
cannot  obtain  eggs.  They  are  clumsy,  and  often  break 
the  eggs,  or  crush  the  chickens  given  to  them.  They  are 
very  hardy  and  easy  to  rear,  can  be  kept  on  any  soil,  are  very 
docile,  but  make  poor  table  birds,  except  so  far  as  size  is 
concerned,  having  coarse  flesh  and  large  bones.  We  give 
portraits  of  a  fairly  good  pair  of  buffs,  though  the  best  exhi 
bition  birds  are  now  bred  higher  in  the  tail  and  with  more 
leg  and  footfeather  than  is  here  represented.  There  are  four 
colours — buff,  partridge,  black,  and  white — all  of  which  are 
very  handsome,  and  look  well  in  a  show  pen,  or  on  a  lawn, 
where  appearance  and  not  utility  is  looked  for.  But  as  com- 
mercial fowls  they  are  of  no  use  whatever. 


DOMINIQUES. 

These  are  birds  of  American  origin,  and  resemble  Cuckoo 
Dorkings  in  shape  and  in  some  other  respects,  but  have  a 
rose  comb.  They  have  yellow  legs,  are  very  hardy,  will  thrive 
on  almost  any  soil,  are  capital  layers,  fairly  good  table  birds, 
good  sitters  and  mothers,  making  altogether  a  most  useful 
breed  for  general  purposes.  They  have  not,  however,  come 
into  anything  like  general  favour  as  show  birds,  and  therefore 
are  not  very  easy  to  obtain  of  high  quality,  but  would,  we 
think,  amply  repay  any  one  who  took  them  up.  * 

DOEKIITGS. 

Dorkings  and  Games  are,  perhaps,  the  oldest  and  best 
preserved  of  all  the  English  pure-bred  fowls.     The  general 


90  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

characteristics  are,  a  square-shaped  body,  with  a  quiet  stately 
carriage,  the  breast  being  put  well  forward.  Some  varieties 
have  a  single,  and  others  a  rose  comb,  but  in  all  cases  the 
head  is  large,  yet  neat.  The  wattles  are  large  and  pendant ; 
the  neck  is  short,  taper  and  with  full  hackle  ;  the  body  is  large 
and  deep  when  viewed  sideways,  almost  forming  a  square  ;  the 
breastbone  is  deep,  the  back  broad,  the  tail  full,  and  the  thighs 
large  and  full ;  the  legs  are  white  in  colour,  straight,  strong, 
and  clean,  have  five  toes ;  and  the  whole  frame  is  large. 
Full-grown  cocks  weigh  lOlb.  to  lllb.,  and  hens  81b.  to 
91b. 

This  breed  is  the  old-fashioned  Sussex  fowl,  and'  takes  its 
name  from  the  town  of  the  same  name  in  that  county.  It 
has  long  held  the  pre-eminent  position  among  English  table 
fowls,  and  deservedly  so,  for  its  white  flesh,  deep  breasts, 
white  legs,  and  light  bones  make  it  one  of  the  best  fowls 
that  can  be  placed  upon  the  table.  There  are  four  kinds  of 
Dorkings — white,  silver  grey,  cuckoo,  and  coloured — all  of 
which  are  equally  good  for  table  purposes,  the  last  named 
being  the  largest.  In  England  great  size  is  attained,  some 
cockerels  weighing  81b.  to  lllb.,  and  adult  birds  lOlb.  to 
141b.,  which,  unlike  some  other  breeds,  is  not  made  up  of 
heavy  bones,  thick  shanks,  and  fleshy  thighs.  The  great 
drawback  to  this  breed  is  its  tenderness.  Whilst  the  birds 
can  stand  any  amount  of  cold,  as  is  proved  by  their  being  so 
largety  bred  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  they  cannot  thrive  in  a 
damp  place  ;  and,  consequently,  unless  the  ground  is  of  a 
dry,  porous  nature,  some  other  breed  should  be  chosen. 
Good  housing  and  feeding  will  do  much,  but  even  these  will 
not  be  sufiicient  on  a  heavy  clay  soil,  which  is  always  fatal. 
All  Dorkings  have  five  toes,  and,  as  is  generally  found,  this 
characteristic  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  tendency  to 
'*  bumble  foot,"  which  is  an  enlargement  of  the  joints  there. 
To  obviate  this  as  far  as  possible,  the  birds  should  have  low 


Fi'ench,  93 

perches  and  soft  floors  and  runs.     Dorkings  are  not  very 
good  as  layers,  being  table  fowls  first  of  all. 


French. 

The  French  people  have  devoted  considerably  more  atten- 
tion to  poultry  than  the  English  have, — at  least  so  far 
as  the  economic  qualities  are  concerned,  and  as  a  result 
their  fowls  are  much  superior  in  commercial  characteristics, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  to  the  English  breeds.  In  all 
cases  they  have  regarded  ^gg  laying  and  quality  of  meat 
before  mere  feather,  but  at  the  same  time  have  bred  to 
certain  general  standards,  and  avoided  the  production  of 
mongrels,  Avhich  has  not  been  the  case  either  in  America 
or  England.  Many  of  the  French  breeds  are  remark- 
able, both  for  size,  quality  of  flesh,  and  depth  of  breast, 
and,  as  those  of  our  readers  who  have  been  in  Paris  can 
testify,  are  prepared  in  a  much  superior  manner  to  the  ones 
at  home,  and  look  much  better  upon  the  table.  Upon  this 
aspect  of  the  question  we  shall  have  more  to  say  later  on, 
when  our  remarks  will  be  more  appropriate.  Unfortunately, 
nearly  all  the  French  breeds  have  dark  legs,  and,  therefore, 
are  objected  to  in  many  places  where  there  is  a  prejudice 
in  favour  of  light  ones.  But  we  hope  this  prejudice  will 
soon  die  out,  and  were  it  not  for  poulterers  and  cooks,  it 
w^ould  have  died  a  natural  death  already.  They  are  the 
culprits  in  the  matter,  and  if  their  influence  was  being 
rightly  used  in  favour  of  quality  and  not  mere  appearance, 
their  customers  would  very  soon  be  reconciled  to  the  change, 
for  the  legs,  in  spite  of  all  that  may  be  believed,  are  no 
criterion  as  to  the  colour  of  the  flesh.  We  shall  now 
briefly  describe  the  chief  French  breeds,  as  known  in  this 
country. 

The  Houdan  is  one  of  the  most  useful  breeds  we  have. 


94  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

and  is  now  thoroughly  acclimatized  here.  It  is  espe- 
cially worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  who  have  not  a 
very  dry  or  warm  soil,  or  who  desire  a  good  layer,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  a  plump,  large  table  fowl ;  or  of  those 
who  have  to  fight  against  the  black  leg  prejudice,  and 
yet  from  the  nature  of  their  place  cannot  keep  Dorkings, 
The  breed  has  undoubtedly  been  produced  in  the  first  in- 
stance by  cr.ossing,  but  the  same  can  be  said  of  many  of 
the  other  breeds,  and  it  is  no  disadvantage  to  it,  as  it 
certainly  breeds  pure,  and  is  one  of  the  best  farmer's  or 
cottager's  fowls  we  have.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illus- 
tration we  give,  the  head  has  a  small  crest ;  the  plumage  is 
black  and  white  spangled,  the  legs  are  pinky  in  colour,  the 
fifth  toe  is  present,  as  in  Dorkings,  the  form  is  bulky  and 
the  size  large.  It  bears  confinement  well,  can  be  kept  on 
any  soil,  is  very  hardy,  lays  well,  its  flesh  is  all  that  can  be 
desired,  and  it  is  a  non- sitter.  We  should  not,  however, 
advise  purchasers  to  take  birds  simply  because  they  have  won 
in  the  show  pen,  but  get  them  from  some  place  where  Houdans 
have  been  kept  for  years,  and  bred  chieflyfor  economic  qualities. 
They  are  then  most  valuable,  and  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  says, 
they  "  may  certainly  be  regarded  as  the  Dorkings  of  France, 
Large,  heavy,  short-legged,  five-toed  fowls,  with  small 
light  bone,  a  remarkable  absence  of  ofi'al,  and  with  irregularly 
speckled  or  mottled  plumage,  they  strongly  recall  to  mind 
the  old-fashioned  coloured  Dorking,  as  it  existed  before 
any  attention  had  been  directed  to  uniformity  of  feathering 
by  the  poultry  shows.  Their  merits  as  table  fowl  are  of 
the  highest  excellence.  No  pure  bred  chickens  mature  with 
greater,  or  perhaps  with  as  great,  a  degree  of  rapidity ;  they 
feather  early,  are  extremely  hardy,  and  consequently  easily 
reared.  The  old  birds  are  robust,  and  the  eggs  which  are 
numerous,  are  remarkable  as  being  almost  invariably  fertile.'* 
Of  all  the  French  breeds  La  Fleche  stands  at  the  head  for 


111 


La  Fleche.  99 

table  qualities,  and  for  the  great  feast  of  Mardi  gras,  held 
in  Paris  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for 
one  hundred  francs  to  be  given  for  a  pair  of  these  birds, 
weighing  101b.  each,  plucked  and  dressed.  The  flesh  is  beau- 
tifully white,  and  there  is  plenty  of  depth  on  the  breast.  They 
feed  well,  but,  unfortunately,  have  been  found  in  America  to 
be  somewhat  delicate,  at  least  in  damp  sitaations,  and  where 
they  have  not  full  liberty.  It  was  formerly  thought  that  they 
were  too  delicate  for  England;  but  in  the  year  1882,  Mr. 
W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  when  over  in  Paris,  was  so  struck  with 
the  table  qualities  of  these  fowls  that  he  purchased  some 
for  his  own  use.  These  he  placed  in  his  grounds  at  Finchley, 
on  the  north  side  of  London,  where  the  bed  of  clay  is  one 
of  the  heaviest  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Metropolis. 
The  birds  were  given  full  liberty,  and  his  experience  has 
been  that  they  are  as  hardy  as  any  other  breed  when  so 
kept.  In  confinement  they  are  undoubtedly  delicate,  but 
with  freedom  can  be  kept  by  almost  any  one.  They  are 
large,  tall,  well-shaped  birds,  with  glossy,  green-black 
plumage :  have  red  faces,  white  ears,  and  a  horned  comb, 
the  last  of  which  does  not  add  to  their  beauty,  giving  them 
an  almost  satanic  appearance.  They  are  clean  legged,  the 
legs  being  dark  in  colour,  are  n on- sitters,  and  in  France 
are  specially  bred  for  table  qualities. 

The  Creve-Cceur  is  a  large  bird,  with  metallic  black  plumage, 
but  of  a  lower,  squarer  build  than  La  Fleche.  It  is  also 
much  more  attractive  in  appearance  ;  its  head  is  surmounted 
by  a  handsome  crest,  which,  in  young  hens  especially,  is 
beautifally  round  and  pleasing.  The  legs  are  also  black, 
but  the  flesh  is  almost  equal  to  the  best  English  or  French 
fowl.  It  is  hardy,  easily  reared  on  any  moderately  dry 
soil,  is  a  non- sitter,  and  a  fairly  good  layer,  but  the  eggs 
are  small.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a  good  shelter  for 
Creves,  so  that  they  can  be  protected  in  wet  or  cold  weather, 

H  2 


lOO  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

as  they  are  rather  liable  to  colds  and  roup  if  the  crests  gefc 
wet ;   but  for  this  they  would  be  oftener  kept  than  they  are. 

There  are,  in  addition  to  the  breeds  already  named,  several 
others,  such  as  La  Bresse  and  Courtes  Pattes,  but  as  these 
have  no  special  characteristics  more  than  we  have  already 
named  in  the  others,  and  are  not  very  easily  obtained  in  this 
Dountry,  we  need  not  do  more  than  mention  them  here. 


Game. 

These  are  probably  the  oldest  of  the  pure  English  breeds, 
and  have  been  bred  for  many  generations  with  great  care  and 
skill.  In  olden  times  cock-fighting  was  a  pastime  almost 
national,  and  was  indulged  in  by  both  rich  and  poor.  Game 
fowls  were  bred  for  this  purpose,  courage  and  endurance 
being  most  sought  after,  and  these  were  combined  with  great 
beauty  of  p»lumage.  Some  of  the  highest  men  of  England 
thought  it  no  dishonour  to  breed  fowls  for  this  purpose;  and 
important  ''mains"  were  regarded  with  as  great  interest  as 
are  some  of  the  chief  race  meetings  now — this  too  within 
the  memory  of  man,  for  there  are  many  living  now,  and  not 
old  men  either,  who  were  accustomed  to  indulge  in  this  cruel 
pastime.  In  modern  times  a  higher  standard  of  taste  has 
done  away  with  cock-fighting,  except  such  as  is  carried  on 
secretly  ;  but  the  change  has  not  done  away  with  the  splendid 
race  of  fowls,  though  it  is  much  changed  from  the  old  fight- 
ing days.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  pugnacious  nature 
remains,  and  for  this  cause  most  people  are  unable  to  keep 
game  birds  pure.  For  crossing  purposes,  as  we  shall  after- 
wards see,  they  can  be  utilised  ;  and,  as  all  kinds  of  games 
are  fair  layers,  splendid  sitters,  attentive  mothers,  have  the 
finest  eating  flesh  of  any  race  of  domestic  fowl,  are  very 
hardy,  easy  to  rear,  and  can  be  kept  on  any  soil  when  at 
liberty,  if  this  crossing  is  judiciously  done,  these  characterise 


H'amburghs,  103 

dcs  can  be  largely  retained,  without  the  fear  of  constant 
warfare. 

The  chief  kinds  of  games  are  black-breasted  reds,  brown- 
breasted  reds,  duckwings  and  piles,  all  of  which  are  very 
handsome;  and  we  cannot  wonder  at  the  popularity  of  the 
breed  among  those  who  have  opportunities  for  keeping  it, 
considering  its  great  beauty,  endurance  and  pluck.  Among 
suburban  working-men  it  is  the  first  favorite,  and  magnifi- 
cent birds  are  often  bred  under  the  most  unftivourable  con- 
ditions. The  prices  realized  for  high-class  show  specimens 
are  very  great,  and  over  $500  has  been  paid  for  a  single  cock 
two  or  three  times  during  the  last  three  or  four  years.  Of 
course,  good  birds  can  be  obtained  at  reasonable  prices  ;  but 
no  one  should  attempt  to  keep  this  variety  unless  he  has 
plenty  of  room,  and,  for  those  whose  object  is  profit,  we  can 
Bcarcely  recommend  it  except  for  crossing  purposes. 


Hamburghs. 

First  and  foremost  among  all  laying  breeds  of  fowls  stand 
the  Hamburghs,  for  they  are  undoubtedly  the  most  prolific 
layers  we  have,  and  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  hens  to  lay 
200  to  230  eggs  per  annum.  Unfortunately,  however,  their 
eggs  are  small,  and  the  fowls  do  not  bear  confinement  very 
well.  They  have,  from  their  great  beauty,  come  to  be  regarded 
as  a  fancier's  fowl,  pure  and  simple  ;  and  whether  we  look  at 
the  cock,  with  his  neat  head,  beautiful  plumage,  close  com- 
pact shape,  and  sweeping  tail,  ornamented  by  a  well  shaped 
rose  comb,  and  pure  ear  lobes,  or  at  the  hen,  neat  and  saucy 
as  she  appears,  rich  in  colour  and  sprightly  in  carriage,  we 
cannot  but  be  attracted  by  them.  As  show  birds  there  are 
five  varieties  now  most  recognized,  namely,  gold  pencilled, 
silver  pencilled,  gold  spangled,  silver  spangled,  and  black. 
Of  all  these  the  blacks  are  the  most  useful,  they  being  much 


I04  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

larger  than  the  others  in  body,  lay  larger  eggs,  and,  either 
alone,  or  crossed  with  some  breed  that  will  increase  the  size  of 
the  Qgg^  such  as  any  one  of  the  Spanish  varieties,  will  be  found 
profitable,  if  plenty  of  room  can  be  given  to  them.  Hamburghs 
must  have  space ;  if  wired-in,  a  ten-foot  fence  is  necessary 
to  restrain  them  ;  but  on  farms  where  they  are  not  at  all 
restricted  they  will  do  very  well.  It  must,  of  course,  be  under- 
stood that  we  are  speaking  of  where  they  are  kept  in  large 
numbers,  when  we  say  that  they  must  have  room.  A  few 
birds  can  easily  be  kept  in  a  moderately  confined  place,  as  is 
done  in  hundreds  of  instances,  and  some  of  the  very  best 
birds  bred  every  year,  both  in  this  and  other  varieties,  are  so 
bred,  in  places  where  the  fowls  have  little  more  than  moving 
room.  "When  they  have  plenty  of  room  most  of  the  varieties 
of  Hamburghs  are  hardy,  easy  to  rear,  and,  as  they  are  non- 
sitters,  make  most  useful  fowls,  where  the  size  of  egg  laid  is 
of  less  importance  than  the  number. 

As  already  stated,  the  blacks  are  the  best  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  the  silver  spangles  come  next  in  point  of  size 
and  hardiness.  In  selecting  such  birds  for  stock  purposes, 
mere  show  qualities,  such  as  fineness  of  ear  lobe  and  comb, 
should  be  ignored,  and  size  of  body,  good  shape  and  liveliness 
of  carriage  be  looked  for  principally.  The  larger  the  fowl  the 
larger  the  Qgg,  as  a  rule,  and  by  selection  both  can  very 
materially  be  increased.  .There  are  other  varieties  besides 
those  named,  such  as  red  caps,  creels  and  pheasants,  which 
laj^  good  sized  eggs,  and  can  be  recommended  equally  with 
the  blacks  as  useful  fowls. 


Langshans. 

About  the  origin  of  this  breed  of  fowls  considerable  con- 
tention has  taken  place ;  but  we  have  no  desire  to  enter  here 
into  the  controversy  at  all.    It  has  only  been  a  very  few  years 


La7tgshans.  107 

in  America,  being  first  introduced  from  China  tliroiigli 
England  and  vaunted  by  its  sponsors  as  an  entirely  new 
breed ;  but,  as  it  bears  some  resemblance  to  Black  Cochins  as 
they  were  at  first,  it  is  thought  by  many  that  the  two  breeds 
are  very  nearly  allied.  There  can  be  no  question  but  that 
they  are  vastly  different  now,  resembling  each  other  only  in 
colour ;  for,  whilst  the  Langshan  is  a  splendid  layer  and  a 
capital  table  bird,  not  too  determined  a  sitter,  and  a  most 
valuable  fowl  for  general  purposes,  the  other  is  just  the 
opposite  of  all  these.  The  Cochin  is  handsomer  in  appearance, 
but  that  is  all.  We  are  disposed  to  think  the  truth  of  the 
whole  matter  is,  that  the  Langshan  of  the  present  day  and 
the  Black  Cochin  of  thirty  years  ago,  are,  if  not  exactly  the 
same,  very  nearly  so,  but  that  the  latter  has  been  spoiled  by 
the  breeding  for  fancy  points  alone. 

The  Langshan  is  a  large  bird,  standing  upon  somewhat 
long  legs,  which  are  only  very  slightly  feathered.  It  has  a 
single  upright  comb,  beautiful  metallic  plumage,  and  has 
much  of  the  Cochin  shape.  In  addition  to  the  qualities 
already  named,  it  is  very  hardy,  easily  reared,  can  be  kept  on 
any  soil,  bears  confinement  very  well  indeed,  and  is  a  most 
faithful  mother,  but,  as  we  have  already  indicated,  not  so 
constant  a  sitter  as  is  the  Cochin.  It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the 
most  valuable  additions  to  our  list  of  fowls  that  has  been 
made  of  late  years,  and  its  beautiful  bright  plumage  makes 
it  most  attractive.  Whilst  not  agreeing  with  what  some  of 
its  friends  have  claimed  for  it,  we  have  no  wish  to  deny  its 
good  qualities,  and  regard  it  as  one  of  the  best  all-round 
pure-bred  fowls  for  ordinary  purposes  that  we  possess. 


Leghorns. 

This  is  a  sub-variety  of  the  Spanish  type  of  birds,  which 
originally  came  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 


io8  Profitable  Potiltry  Keeping. 

principally  from  Northern  Ital}-,  where  it  is  the  common 
breed  of  the  country,  and  is  known  all  over  the  continent  as 
the  ^^ Italian"  fowl.  Leghorns  were  brought  some  years 
ago  to  the  United  States,  and  tlieir  intrinsic  merits  soon 
made  them  one  of  the  most  popular  breeds  in  this  country 
for  those  poultry  breeders  who  regard  utility  as  of  equal,  if 
not  greater,  importance  than  fancy  points.  It  was  from 
America  that  Leghorns  were  originally  taken  to  England ; 
and  although  at  first  they  w^ere  met  with  a  great  amount  of 
prejudice,  they  have  gradually  overcome  it,  and  are  now  very 
popular  indeed.  Originally  there  were  but  two  varieties,  the 
white  and  the  brown,  but  now  there  are  two  others,  the  black 
and  the  cuckoo. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  Leghorns  are — a  somewhat 
large-sized  single  comb,  with  deeply  cut  serrations,  and  the 
comb  itself  extending  down  over  the  back  of  the  head ;  long 
pendant  wattles,  red  face,  with  white  ear  lobes,  yellow  bill, 
and  clean  legs  of  the  same  colour,  the  hackles  full,  and  a 
sweeping  tail  in  the  cocks.  The  body  is  smallish,  but  close 
and  compact,  and  the  whole  appearance  sprightly  and  pleasing. 
The  comb  of  the  hen  is  large,  and  falls  over  on  to  one  side, 
in  a  single  fold.  So  far  as  colour  is  concerned,  in  the  whites 
it  is  that  self  colour  throughout  the  plumage ;  but  in  the 
browns  the  markings  are  very  like  brown-red  game,  though 
not  quite  so  bright.  In  the  cock,  the  hackles  are  golden  bay, 
striped  with  black  ;  the  back  red,  each  feather  having  a  stripe 
of  brighter  bay ;  the  breast  rich  black,  standing  out  full  in 
front ;  the  wings  large,  of  a  dark  red,  striped  across  with  bars 
of  bay  and  green-black ;  the  sickles  long,  green  and  black  in 
colour ;  and  the  legs  yellow,  as  we  have  already  stated.  In 
the  hen  the  breast  is  a  light  salmon  brown ;  the  neck  hackle 
yellow,  striped  with  brown  ;  the  back  brown,  with  slight  pen- 
cilling thereon  ;  and  the  action  sprightly  and  graceful.  The 
blacks  are  self  colour,  and  the  cuckoos,  black  and  white  mixed. 


EKOWN  LEGHORNS. 


Legho7^ns.  in 

Leghorns  are  splendid  layers  of  fair- sized  eggs,  the  whites 
being  both  the  best  layers  and  producing  the  largest  eggs. 
They  are  very  precocious  and  hardy  (we  have  known  pullets 
commence  to  lay  at  fifteen  weeks  old,  and  heard  of  an  instance 
where  the  second  generation  was  bred  within  five  months), 
bear  confinement  very  well,  and  can  be  kept  almost  on  any 
soil,  but  they  are  not  good  as  table  birds.  They  are  small 
eaters,  and,  when  at  liberty,  splendid  foragers.  Unfortunately, 
during  the  last  few  j^ears  the  size  has  diminished,  especially 
with  the  brown  variety,  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  Leghorns 
have  become  favourite  exhibition  birds,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
fancy  points  have  been  looked  at  before  the  commercial 
qualities.  There  are  signs,  however,  that  an  improvement 
is  taking  place  in  this  respect,  which,  we  trust,  may  be  the 
case,  as  the  breed  is  a  most  valuable  one,  and  we  should  be 
sorry  to  see  it  injured  in  any  way.  For  those  who  wish  to 
produce  eggs  for  maiket,  it  is  one  of  the  best  breeds  that 
can  be  kept. 

Malays. 

The  Malay  is  of  East  Indian  origin,  and  was  doubtless  at 
first  bred  chiefly  for  fighting  purposes.  As  a  commercial 
fowl  it  is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  it  is  not  only  a  poor 
layer,  but  also  very  quarrelsome.  It  can  be  used  to  cross 
with  the  Dorking  for  table  purposes,  as  the  meat  is  very 
richly  flavoured;  but,  except  for  this,  it  is  not w^orth keeping. 
It  is  tall,  gaunt,  and  almost  ugly,  with  huge  shanks  and 
bones,  and  a  coarse  head. 


MiNORCAS. 

These  form  another  variety  of  the  Spanish  section,  and 
have  been  carefully  bred  for  very  many  years  in  the  south- 


1 1 2  Profitable  Poziltry  Keeping. 

western  districts  of  England,  outside  of  which,  until  recently, 
they  were  scarcely  known.  But  now  their  great  value  as 
layers  has  made  them  very  popular  indeed  all  over  that 
country,  and  they  promise  to  become  first  favorites  in  this 
as  well.  Nor  can  we  wonder  at  it,  for  their  great  fecundity, 
the  large  eggs  they  produce,  their  precocity  and  hardiness, 
their  adaptability  for  all  soils  and  places,  whether  con- 
fined or  otherwise,  makes  them  one  of  the  most  useful 
breeds  we  possess,  and  being  non-sitters  we  must  give 
Minorcas  the  first  position  among  all  the  laying  breeds  of 
poultry. 

The  Minorcas  are  in  many  places  known  by  the  name  of 
"Eed-faced  Spanish,"  and  are  the  nearest,  in  shape  and 
appearance,  to  the  Black  Spanish  of  all  varieties  of  fowls. 
It  is  probable  that  the  two  races  were  originally  one,  and 
that  the  faces  then  were  red,  as  the  Minorcas  now  have  them  ; 
but  the  Spanish  have  been  bred  with  white  faces,  and  spoiled 
by  too  fine  breeding.  The  shape  is  not  unlike  the  Leghorn, 
but  the  comb  is  much  larger,  and  there  is  the  red  face,  the 
white  ear  lobes,  and  the  clean  legs  also.  There  are  two 
colours,  the  blacks  and  the  whites,  but  the  latter  are  very  little 
seen,  and  the  blacks  are  the  ones  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking,  being  really  splendid  birds.  Their  metallic  black 
plumage  makes  them  very  handsome,  and  they  are  for  the 
same  reason  very  suitable  for  keeping  in  towns,  or  in  such 
districts  as  are  not  over  clean,  from  the  proximity  of  factories 
or  works  of  any  kind.  As  layers  Minorcas  are  about  the 
best  breed  we  have  at  present ;  they  can  be  kept  on  any  soil, 
either  at  libert}^  or  in  confinement,  are  capital  foragers, 
small  eaters,  and,  were  we  about  to  commence  keepiuga 
large  number  of  fowls  on  a  farm,  we  should  certainly  select 
this  as  the  laying  breed,  either  alone,  or  to  cross  with  some 
of  the  other  Spanish  varieties. 


BLiOK    MINOKCA", 


j?a9B*9i''^'' 


Polish.  117 

Plymouth  Eocks. 

This  is  a  variety  of  New  England  manufacture,  but  is 
nevertheless  a  most  useful  breed  for  general  purposes^  and 
has  become  wonderfully  popular  Avitliin  a  very  short  time. 
The  fowls  are  cuckoo  in  plumage,  and  resemble  a  Cochin  in 
sbape  more  than  anything  else,  as  that  variety  has  doubtless 
bad  much  to  do  in  the  making  them.  They  are  large  in 
body,  adult  birds  being  of  ten  and  twelve  pounds  weight ; 
have  strong  yellow  legs ;  are  very  good  layers,  (but  the  eggs 
are  small,  though  very  ricli  in  flavour) ;  are  capital  as  table 
birds,  witli  a  good  supply  of  meat  on  the  breast ;  are  fairly 
good  sitters  and  mothers;  very  hardy,  can  be  kept  on  almost 
any  soil,  and  bear  confinement  very  well.  Throughout  the 
United  States  they  are  great  favourites,  competing  with 
Leghorns  for  first  position,  and'are  doubtless  most  useful  for 
general  purposes,  but  are  not  characterized  by  any  great 
beauty.  They  have  found  many  friends  in  England  during 
recent  years,  and  are  now  kept  in  large  numbers,  which  show 
every  sign  of  increasing. 

Polish. 

The  Polish  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  the  races  of  poultry,  but  it  is  more  suitable  as  a  fancy 
fowl  than  for  commercial  purposes.  In  fact,  it  is  not  to  be 
recommended  for  the  latter  at  all.  There  are  four  principal 
varieties — the  gold-spangled,  the  silver- spangled,  the  white- 
crested  blacks,  and  the  buff,  or  chamois,  all  of  which  are  very 
beautiful  indeed.  Polish  are  of  a  medium  size,  with  well- 
shaped  bodies,  very  rich  coloured  plumage  in  the  coloured 
varieties,  clean  legs,  sweeping  tails,  but  their  chief  glory  is  a 
large  globular  crest  which  surmounts  the  head.  The  illustra- 
tion which  we  give  is  representative  of  a  good  pair  of  white- 


it8  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

crested  blacks,  which  is  about  the  most  striking  of  all  the 
Polish  tribe.  They  are  fairly  hardy,  but  require  to  be  kept 
•where  they  can  have  plenty  of  shelter  in  wet  weather,  for 
they  are  very  subject  to  colds  and  roup.  They  are  good 
layers  and  table  birds,  are  non-sitters,  and  most  suitable 
in  dry  town  runs,  where  they  have  not  a  great  amount  of 
liberty. 

Although  not  generally  placed  under  the  head  of  Polish, 
yet  as  they  are  undoubtedly  of  the  same  origin,  we  now 
mention  the  Sultan  fowl^  which  has  several  points  in 
common  with  the  Polish.  It  originally  came  from  Turkey, 
and  hence  its  name.  The  size  is  small,  the  plumage  is 
pure  white  and  very  plentiful,  the  head  is  surmounted  by  a 
large  crest,  with  heavy  muffs  below,  the  hock  and  leg  feathers 
are  well  developed,  and  the  birds  are  fairly  hardy.  They 
are  good  laj^ers  and  non-sitters,  but  cannot  be  regarded  as 
commercial  fowls. 


Scotch  Greys. 

Until  a  few  years  ago,  very  few  of  these  handsome  birds 
were  to  be  seen  in  England  and  almost  none  in  America. 
They  have  been  long  kept  in  Scotland,  and  the  first  Edin- 
burgh show  we  ever  visited  was  a  revelation  to  us,  for  some 
two  or  three  hundred  birds  were  there  exhibited.  They  are 
really  a  large,  hardy,  cuckoo  Dorking  without  the  fifth  toe, 
and  are  capital  layers,  good  sitters  and  mothers,  first-rate 
table  birds,  hardy,  and  can  be  reared  on  almost  any  soil, 
though  they  do  best  in  dry  places.  Having  white  or  mottled 
legs,  they  can  be  used  both  for  a  chicken  trade  and  as  layers, 
and  their  economic  qualities  will  doubtless  insure  them  a 
welcome  in  many  places,  where  they  have  heretofore  been 
unknown,  and  where  a  hardy  and  large  fowl  is  specially 
needed. 


1    }\  a 


Silkies.  121 


Black  Spanish. 


This  breed  was  at  one  time  the  most  popular  of  all,  and 
certainly  merited  everything  that  could  be  said  in  its  favour, 
as  it  was  a  small  eater,  a  prolific  layer  of  large  eggs,  and  bore 
confinement  very  well.  But  that  was  before  it  had  been 
spoiled  by  the  attentions  of  the  fanciers,  who,  by  breeding  for 
fancy  points,  have  almost  ruined  it ;  we  mean  by  the  foolish 
development  of  the  white  face,  which  has  been  at  the 
expense  of  its  stamina  and  strength.  It  is  still  a  good 
layer,  but  the  chickens  are  troublesome  to  rear,  are  very 
slow  in  feathering,  and  the  adult  birds  get  through  the  moult 
with  great  difficulty,  and  it  is  poor  as  a  table  bird.  In  a  few 
strains,  which  have  not  been  bred  for  show  purposes,  and  in 
which  the  white  face  has  not  been  unduly  developed,  these 
failings  are  not  so  much  found,  and  the  birds  have  all  the  old 
strength  and  value  ;  but  these  are  very  scarce  and  difficult  to 
obtain,  and  we  should  advise  any  one  who  wishes  to  keep 
Spanish  for  profit,  to  cross  them  with  the  Black  Minorcas,  as 
by  this  means  strength  will  be  secured,  and  without  injury  to 
the  laying  properties.  As  will  have  been  seen  from  what  we 
have  said,  Spanish  need  a  warm,  dry  soil,  and  special  treat- 
ment during  chickenhood,  and  the  moulting  season.  The 
plumage  is  bright  black,  the  comb  single  (erect  in  the  cock, 
lying  over  in  the  hen,  as  is  shown  in  the  illustration),  the  face 
white,  the  tail  sweeping,  and  the  legs  black. 


Silkies. 

These  are  scarcely  to  be  regarded  as  commercial  fowls,  but, 
as  they  are  often  used  for  hatching  other  eggs,  for  they  are 
exceptionally  good  mothers,  and  as  they  are  of  great  anti- 
quity, they  cannot  be  regarded  as  out  of  place  here.  They 
are  small  in  size,  have  purple  coloured  faces  and  flesh  of  a 


122  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

similiarly  dark  hue,  but  their  great  peculiarity  is,  that  their 
feathers  are  not  webbed,  as  are  those  of  other  fowls,  but 
separate,  and  giving  the  appearance  of  a  covering  of  silk  or 
down.  Respecting  them  Mr.  Tegetmeier  in  his  Poultry  Book 
remarks  : — *•  In  form  Silk  fowls  are  compact,  and  low  on  the 
legs  ;  in  this  respect  resembling  well-bred  Cochins.  They 
are  by  no  means  of 'so  great  a  weight  as  they  appear,  for 
their  feathers  when  in  good  condition  are  very  fluffy,  and 
stand  well  out  from  the  body,  giving  them  the  appearance 
of  far  greater  bulk  than  they  in  reality  possesi=!.  Their 
ordinary  weight  is  under  two  pounds  each  for  the  hens,  and 
two  pounds  and  a  half  for  the  cocks.  From  their  small  size 
they  are  not  unfrequently  termed  silky  bantams,  and  are 
often  exhibited  at  our  poultry  shows  in  the  classes  for  those 
breeds.  The  eggs  laid  by  silk  fowls  are  small  in  size,  and 
of  a  pale  buff  colour.  The  hens  usually  lay  about  twenty 
or  twenty-five  eggs  before  showing  any  desire  to  sit ;  they 
are  admirable  mothers,  and,  on  this  account,  as  well  as  from 
the  warmth  afforded  by  their  downy  plumage,  they  are  well 
suited  for  rearing  pheasants  or  partridges." 


Cross-bred  Poultry,  125 


CHAPTER   XL 

CROSS-BRED   POULTRY. 

Farm-yard  mongrels — First  Cross  only  to  be  Used — Value  of  Cross-breeding — 
Pure  bred  Fowls  to  be  the  Foundation  — Sale  of  Eggs  and  Chickens — Methods 
of  Cross-breeding — Some  Crosses  -  Improving  present  Stocks.. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  of  late  devoted  to  the 
subject  of  cross-bred  fowls,  and  the  real  value  of  crossing, 
as  well  as  the  lines  upon  which  it  should  go,  have  at  last  been 
agreed  upon.  The  ordinary  cross-bred  poultry,  such  as  we 
see  on  too  many  farms,  are  simply  mongrels,  crossed  and 
re-crossed;  but  we  do  not  mean  these  at  all.  When  w^e  say 
cross-bred,  we  must  be  understood  to  refer  to  a  cross  between 
two  pure  breeds,  by  which  definite  characteristics  are  to  be 
obtained.  Therefore,  in  using  the  term  cross-bred,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  we  mean  a  first  cross  only,  for  if  cross- 
bred birds  be  bred  from,  the  stock  rapidly  degenerates,  and 
loses  those  qualities  for  which  the  crossing  had  been  made. 
It  has  been  advocated  by  some  writers,  that,  because  the  first 
cross  is  profitable,  following  ones  must  be  the  same ;  and,  in 
one  place,  we  read  that  poultry  should  be  crossed  *'  as  much 
as  possible,  as  you  cannot  have  too  many  breeds  mixed." 
This  is  simply  nonsense,  and  it  has  been  proved  over  and 
over  again,  that  repeated  crossing  is  positively  injurious,  and 
that  where  this  system  is  practised,  the  birds  get  smaller  in 
size,  weaker  in  body,  and  less  prolific.  Crossing  can  only  be 
beneficial  when  it  is  conducted  with  skill  and  foresight,  both 


120  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

of  wliicli  can  easily  be  attained,  by  any  one  having  ordinary 
common  sense.  If  crosses  are  made  without  relation  to  the 
characteristics  of  the  birds  so  used,  or  without  dae  apprecia- 
tion of  what  is  wanted  in  the  progeny,  or,  again,  simply  made 
for  the  sake  of  crossing,  then  the  result  can  hardly  fail  to  be 
unsatisfactory. 

It  will  be  asked  by  those  wdio  have  large  numbers  of  fowls, 
which  they  keep  for  the  sake  of  profit  only,  and  who  do  not 
care  or  who  have  no  desire  for  pure-bred  fowls  as  such,  whether 
it  is  better  to  keep  the  birds  pure  or  crossed.  We  certainly 
prefer  the  cross-bred  birds  for  profit,  but  there  must  be  pure- 
bred fowls  to  supply  the  stocks  of  layers  or  table  birds,  and  ^ 
these  will  have  to  be  mated  together  in  a  systematic  manner. 
There  are  many  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  crossing,  the 
first,  and  perhaps  principal,  of  which  is  the  greater  hardiness 
of  the  birds  so  produced.  The  tendency  of  all  high-class 
breeding  is  to  develop  some  point  or  quality,  which  is  generally 
secured  only  by  the  sacrifice  of  others,  and  thus,  as  these 
points  or  qualities  are  by  no  means  general,  a  certain  amount  of 
in-breeding  must  take  place ;  or,  the  strength  and  constitution 
of  the  animals  are  regarded  as  minor  matters,  and  the  result 
is  a  weakening  of  the  system.  A  first  cross  remedies  this, 
but,  strange  to  say,  the  second  generation  begins  to  go  back 
again  ;  and  the  promiscuous  crossing  and  in-breeding  among 
farm-yard  fowls  is  undoubtedly  the  great  cause  of  their  de- 
terioration. There  is  a  natural  law  for  this,  but  w^e  have  not 
space  here  to  enter  into  the  details  of  it.  Another  great  ad- 
vantage is,  that  certain  qualities  can  be  bred  for,  which  are 
only  to  be  got  in  pure-bred  stock  after  many  years  of  labour, 
and  not  even  then  if  feather  is  made  the  chief  point.  For 
instance.  Leghorns  are  good  layers,  but  only  moderate  table 
birds.  To  remedy  the  latter  defect,  without  injury  to  the 
laying  powers,  if  present  outward  characteristics  were  to  be 
preserved,  would  be  a  long  and  weary  task  ;  but  in  one  year, 


Cross  Breeding,  129 

by  means  of  a  judicious  cross,  fowls  can  be  obtained  that 
will  retain  the  good  la}  ing  qualities  of  Leghorns,  and  yet  be 
vastly  superior  for  table  purposes.  Of  course,  the  distinctive 
colour  and  shape  would  be  largely  done  away  with,  and, 
therefore,  if  this  were  objected  to,  such  a  cross  should  not 
be  made.  As  we  have  already  said,  there  must  be  a  certain 
amount  of  in-breeding  among  pure-bred  stock,  which  natur- 
ally weakens  the  system,  and  reacts  upon  the  commercial 
properties  of  the  fowl.  For  profitable  purposes,  therefore,  we 
strongly  recommend  cross-breeds,  as  they  are  much  superior 
to  the  pure  breeds,  if  properly  mated.  Hap-hazard  mating 
of  birds  will  do  no  good,  but  rather  the  reverse,  and  there 
must  be  an  object  in  view  in  all  that  is  done,  or  more  harm 
than  good  will  certainly  be  the  result. 

There  is  yet  another  advantage  in  having  pure-bred  fowls 
to  breed  from,  and  that  is,  there  are  many  persons  all  over 
the  country  who  have  room  for  only  a  few  fowls,  say,  half-a- 
dozen  to  a  score,  and  who  only  wish  to  supply  their  own 
tables  with  eggs,  and,  in  a  few  cases,  with  a  chicken  now  and 
again.  Many  of  these  have  not  space  sufficient  to  allow 
them  to  go  in  for  breeding,  and  others  only  want  to  rear  a 
very  few  chickens  every  year,  say,  one  or  two  clutches  at 
most.  Such  persons  do  not  care  for  showing,  but  at  the 
same  time  like  to  have  pure-bred  fowls.  They  are  generally 
wjlling  to  give  two  dollars  for  a  good  cockerel,  and  two-thirds 
as  mucli  for  a  nice-looking  pullet ;  or,  Avhen  they  take  a  fancy 
to  rear  a  few  chickens,  they  prefer  to  obtain  a  few  eggs  from 
another  yard,  and  will  pay  two  or  three  dollars  for  a  setting 
of  eggs.  There  are  some  poultry  yards  where  hundreds  of 
settings  of  eggs,  and  hundreds  of  birds,  are  sold  in  this  way 
every  year ;  and  we  do  not  see  why  every  farmer  who  goes  in 
for  poultry  should  not  do  a  little  in  this  way  also.  Of  course, 
if  every  one  did  this,  each  one  would  make  less  out  of  it. 
than  those  who  have  it  all  to  themselves  now  do ;  but,  as  there 

E 


130  Profitable  Potdtry  Keeping. 

is  always  a  demand  for  birds  to  provide  a  change  of  blood,  and 
there  are  probably  fifty  poultry-keepers,  who  have  only  a  few 
fowls  for  their  own  household  purposes,  to  every  farmer  who 
could  go  in  for  the  business  we  have  mentioned,  there  would 
even  then  be  plenty  of  room  for  all ;  and  we  may  reasonably 
suppose  that  the  number  of  small  poultry-keepers  would  in- 
crease as  rapidly  as  the  larger  ones,  if,  indeed,  not  more 
rapidly.  Not  only  is  the  demand  for  pure-bred  stock  greater 
for  this  purpose  than  for  cross-breds,  but  the  prices  are 
much  greater  also.  There  is  always  a  pleasure  in  looking  at 
birds  which  have  a  decided  individuality  of  their  own,  at 
least,  where  the  keeping  of  them  is  made  a  hobby;  and  it  is 
surprising  how  much  greater  pride  is  taken  in  fowls  of  this 
kind  than  is  taken  in  mongrels.  Cross-bred  fowls  will  t^ell 
for  very  little  more  than  killing  prices,  and  their  eggs,  for 
hatching  purposes,  will  only  realize  market  prices  per  dozen  ; 
whilst  pure-bred  ones,  even  though  the  parents  in  each  case 
may  be  of  the  same  family,  will  bring  twice  and  often  three 
times  the  money.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  keeping 
.of  a  stock  of  pure-bred  birds  is  the  best  paying  system  of 
the  two. 

When  commencing,  the  best  plan  is  to  purchase  one  or 
two  pens  of  pure-bred  fowls,  if  there  are  none  that  can  be 
used  for  the  purpose  already  in  the  yard,  Ibe  cocks  to  be  of 
a  breed  that  will  help  the  qualities  of  the  hens.  Each  pen 
will  require  to  be  kept  by  itself,  and  should  have  a  good  run, 
or  perfect  freedom,  as  exercise  has  much  to  do  with  the  hardi- 
ness of  the  chickens.  If  the  houses  are  placed  a  good 
distance  from  each  other,  there  will  be  very  little  danger  of 
intermixing.  Only  the  eggs  from  these  pens  should  be 
hatched,  and  (calculating  that  half  will  be  cockerels)  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  completely  stock  the  yard  with  faying 
hens  in  the  autumn,  when  the  present  stock  of  hens,  if  any, 
can  be  fattened  and  killed  off,  just  before  they  go  into  the 


Desi7'able  Cross  Breeds.  131 

moult.  By  this  means  a  race  of  first-class  birds  will  be 
obtained,  and  the  difference  in  returns  the  following  winter 
if  mongrels  have  been  previously  kept,  will  show  the  wisdom 
of  the  course  adopted.  Layers  can  easily  be  got  that  will 
produce  an  average  of  ]  50  to  200  eggs  per  annum,  and  table 
fowls  that  will  grow  and  fatten  very  rapidly.  The  breeding 
hens  can  be  put  among  the  young  ones  in  the  autumn,  as  they 
will  be  wanted  again  the  following  spring.  In  all  well-regulated 
yards  it  is  customary  to  kill  off  the  hens  when  about  nine- 
teen months  old,  just  before  they  go  into  their  second  moult, 
as  they  are  still  good  for  eating,  or,  at  any  rate,  much 
better  than  they  will  ever  be  again  ;  and,  as  every  moult  gets 
more  severe  and  protracted,  and  the  number  of  eggs  laid 
fewer,  it  is  much  more  profitable  to  supply  their  places  with 
young  hens.  But  the  same  breeding  stock  will  do  again, 
simply  filling  up  the  gu^  ^,  or  introdaeing  fresh  birds  as  may 
be  found  necessary.  As  breeders  of  laying  fowls  we  suggest 
the  following  crosses,  the  first-named  of  each  pair  being  the. 
cock  : — Black  Minorca — Leghorn ;  Minorca — Houdan  ;  An- 
dalusian — Leghorn;  Andalusian — Minorca;  or,  Andalusian 
— Houdan.  For  good  all-round  fowls — layers,  sitters,  and 
table  fowls  : — Game — Houdan  ;  Game — Langshan  ;  Game 
— Brahma  ;  or.  Game — Scotch  Grey.  And  for  first-class 
table  birds: — Game — Dorking;  Game — La  Fleche;  Game 
— Creve ;  or,  Dorking — La  Fleche.  These  crosses  will  be 
found  sufficient  for  those  who  wish  to  try  the  plan  suggested, 
and  we  should  recommend  them  not  to  keep  too  many  varieties. 
One  laying  and  one  table-fowl  cross,  will  be  sufficient  for 
most  yards. 

Doubtless  there  will  be  some  of  our  readers  who  have  a 
stock  of  hens  which  they  do  not  wish  to  part  with,  and  would 
prefer  to  improve  these  by  obtaining  some  fresh  cocks.  We 
do  not  look  upon  this  as  the  best  plan,  but  at  the  same  time 
give  SQch  information  as  will  help  those  who  prefer  to  adopt 

Tr   9. 


132  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

it.  The  way  to  proceed  is,  to  select  twelve  to  fifteen  clean- 
legged,  close-bodied  liens,  known  to  be  good  layers,  and  not 
more  than  two  years  old,  and  buy  a  couple  of  Minorca,  Houdan, 
or  Andalusiau  cockerels,  if  layers  only  are  wanted,  and  Lang- 
shan  or  Game,  if  both  layers  and  table  birds  are  desired. 
Mate  these  up  with  the  hens  spoken  of,  and  the  progeny  will 
be  vastly  superior  to  the  present  stock,  which  can  be  partially, 
or  entirel}^,  cleared  out  in  the  autumn.  The  cockerels  just 
named  should  be  got  rid  of  also,  and  the  following  spring  a 
similiar  number  of  the  pullets  bred  should  be  selected,  and  a 
couple  of  fresh  cockerels  obtained,  of  the  same  breed  as  before, 
which  will  have  to  be  repeated  every  year.  By  this  means 
the  fowls  will  gradually  improve,  and  in  a  very  few  years  the 
character  of  the  yard  will  be  entirely  altered.  Or,  another 
plan,  is  to  buy  five  cocks  for  every  fifty  hens,  and  let  all  run 
together,  killing  off  the  old  hens  in  the  autumn,  and  buying 
^  new  cocks  every  spring.  Both  these  methods  are,  however, 
slow,  and  the  one  we  first  named,  will  be  found  cheapest  and 
best  in  the  long  run. 


Dticks, 


J33 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


DUCKS. 


Ducks  very  profitable — Water  needed  for  Breeders — Not  to  be  kept  •with  Hens — 
Duck  Farms — Housing — The  Wild  Duck — The  Aylesbury — The  Rouen — 
The  Pekin — The  Cayuga — The  Muscovy — Ornamental  Varieties — Keeping 
in  Small  Runs — Forcing — Breeding — HatchiDg — Rearing — Feeding — Pre- 
paring Rice. 

Of  all  the  various  kinds  of  domesticated  poultry,  which  can 
be  kept  by  farmers  or  cottagers,  there  is  no  doubt  that  dacks 
are  the  most  profitable ;  but  they  need  a  suitable  place  to  be 
kept  in,  and  are  not  so  capable  of  adapting  themselves  to 
circumstances  as  are  hens.  They  are,  however,  hardy, 
easily  reared,  feed  up  quickly,  and  can,  at  the  proper  season 
of  the  year,  or  in  some  places  at  almost  any  season,  be  sold 
very  readily  at  good  prices.  Where  there  are  towns  within 
a  reasonable  distance  of  a  farm,  arrangements  can  be  made 
to  supply  hotels,  restaurants,  private  houses,  or  dealers,  and 
we  are  sure  the  result  will  be  a  satisfactory  one.  Of  course, 
water  will  be  required,  and  a  running  stream  is  best  of  all, 
but  the  soil  can  be  of  any  nature,  though  where  it  is  gravel 
or  sand,  it  is  all  the  better  for  the  purpose,  as  ducks  require 
one  or  other  of  these  to  help  them  in  the  digestion  of  their 
food,  and  the  more  easily  they  do  digest  the  food  the  better 
they  will  thrive.  Ducks  do  not  want  good  land,  but  can  be 
kept  on  uncultivated  ground,  and  it  will  be  none  the  worse 
for  them  if  they  can  have  some  good  shelter,  such  as  trees  or 
bushes  afford.     They  must  not,  however,  be  kept  with  hens, 


T34  P^'ofitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

or  the  latter  will  be  found  to  suffer  in  consequence,  as  ducks 
thrive  in  dirt,  and  hens  do  not,  so  that,  if  there  is  not 
sufficient  room  to  permit  of  their  being  widely  separated, 
then  hens  or  ducks  should  be  selected,  for  which  the  place  and 
soil  is  most  suitable,  and  for  the  produce  of  which  there  is  most 
demand  in  the  district.  As  an  instance  of  what  is  done  in 
this  way,  we  may  state  that  the  Aylesbury  district,  England, 
is  great  for  ducks,  and  it  is  said  that  upwards  of  1100,000 
per  annum  is  paid  to  the  cottagers  around  tlie  town  of 
Aylesbury  for  ducklings,  which  are  chiefly  I'eared  for  the 
London  market. 

Same  time  ago  a  description  appeared  in  the  Field^  of 
London,  of  a  duck  farm  near  to  Dunstable,  in  Bedfordshire, 
which  has  been  found  a  profitable  investment  by  its  owners. 
A  large  house  was  built  about  a  couple  of  years  ago  to 
keep  and  fatten  the  young  birds  in ;  and  the  object  of 
the  owners  is  to  get  the  ducklings  ready  for  market  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  for  which  purpose  they  are  fed  on  boiled 
rice ;  to  this  meat  is  added  for  the  older  ones,  during  the 
two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  their  being  killed,  and 
some  hundreds  are  sent  to  market  every  week  in  the  season. 
Since  the  above  description  appeared,  a  lady,  who  writes 
under  the  name  of  "  Hen  wife,"  has  given,  in  the  Live  Stock 
Journal,  the  results  of  her  own  work  in  this  direction.  She 
says : — "  I«n  the  spring  of  1881  I  obtained  from  my  own 
stock  of  Aylesburys,  and  from  purchases  of  eggs,  upwards  of 
500  ducklings.  Of  these  I  lost  from  rats,  heavy  rains,  and 
an  incursion  of  cattle,  about  thirty-five.  The  twenty  birds 
which  I  set  aside  as  breeding  stock  were  hatched  in  March 
and  April.  Having  set  eggs  in  December,  1880,  I  had 
ducklings  fit  for  the  table  in  Februrary,  which  I  sold  at  16s. 
to  18s.  per  couple.  I  had  a  constant  supply  of  Ducklings 
until  August,  1881."  On  November  10th  my  reserve  breed- 
ing stock  began  to  lay,  being  then  about  seven  months  old, 


Duck  Keeping,  135 

and  from  these  eggs  fire  ducklings  were  hatched  on  the  20tli 

December I    never     keep   ducks   over     eighteen 

months  old,  as  I  find  they  eat  idle  food  from  the  end  of 
August  to  March,  which  is  better  bestowed  on  their  young 
ones,  at  that  time  laying.  I  except  from  this  rule  any 
particularly  large  bird,  or  one  remarkable  for  its  laying 
qualities." 

One  great  advantage  in  keeping  ducks  is,  that  they  are 
hardy  and  easy   to  rear,  in  proof  of  which  we  may  quote 
what  was  told  us  some  time  ago,  by  one  of  the  largest  breeders 
in  the  kingdom,  namely,  that  he  very  seldom  finds  any  eggs 
inf'^rtile,  that  the  proportion  of  eggs  failing  to  hatch  is  very 
small,  and  that  the  moitality  among  the  ducklings  is  ahnost 
nil — so  that  the  duck  breeder  has  every  chance  of  success. 
So  far  as  the  fattening  is  concerned,  we  have  fed  ducklings 
up  to  81b.  and  101b.  the  couple,  in  eight  weeks,  at  a  cost 
of  about  30  cents  to  40  cents  each  ;  and  as  the  price  to  be 
got  even   at   an   ordinary  time  would  be  not  less  than  18 
cents,  and  probably  25  cents  a  pound,  whilst  earlier  in  W-\q 
year  it  would  be  much  greater,  there  is  plenty  of  margin  for 
profit.     Besides,  ducks  are  most  prolific  layers,  and  there  is 
always  a  good  demand  from  cooks  and  confectioners  for  their 
CGfgs.     Ducks  are  undoubtedly  large  eaters,  but  as  the  old 
birds  kej)t  need  not  be  very  numerous,  this  does  not  affect 
the  matter ;  and  there  are  thousands  of  cottagers  and  others, 
living  near  small  streams,  who  might  add  very  cansiderably 
to  their  incomes  by  keeping  ducks,  and  without  any  great 
outlay  in  the  first  instance,  or  much  time  and  money  after- 
wards.    But  the  place  must  be  suitable  if  profit  is  to  be 
made.     We  do  not   for  a  moment  wish  to  say  that  duaks 
cannot  be  reared  without  water.     In  fact,  in  our  early  poul- 
try days  we  hatched  and  reared  every  year  sufficient  ducks 
to  supply  our  table  for  months,  on  a  very  small  plot  of  ground ; 
but  we  never  attempted  to  keep  adult  birds,  buying  the  eggs 


136  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

for  hatching,  and  rearing  the  dacklings,  which  had  only  a 
pool  of  water  about  six  feet  in  diameter  to  disport  them- 
selves in.  Had  we  attempted  to  keep  layers  we  should 
doubtless  have  failed,  for  it  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  ducks 
which  are  to  be  used  as  breeders,  must  have  a  fair  amount 
of  water,  enough  to  swim  about  in.  And  if  this  cannot  be 
given,  the  plan  we  have  adopted  should  be  followed,  or  no 
ducks  kept  at  all.  Otherwise,  failure  will  be  the  inevitable 
result. 

So  far  as  the  housing  of  ducks  is  concerned,  they  require 
a  comfortable  house  in  the  winter  or  late  autumn.  One 
low  in  the  roof  is  the  best,  as  they  always  lie  upon  the  floor, 
which  should  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  that  already 
described  for  ordinary  poultry  houses.  If  the  roof  is  three 
feet  above  the  ground,  that  will  be  sufficient,  but  it  must 
be  properly  ventilated,  and  dry  both  above  and  below. 
Clean  straw  should  be  kept  on  the  floor,  and  bricks  and 
straw  used  for  nests,  but  no  shed  is  needed  if  the  house  is 
of  reasonable  size,  as  the  birds  rather  enjoy  rain  than  other- 
wise. It  is  best  to  have  an  enclosure  round  the  house, 
made  of  low  wcod  raihngs,  in  which  the  birds  can  be  kept 
until  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  for  if  allowed  out 
before  that  time  they  will  lay  in  any  out  of  the  way  place, 
where  the  nests  will  not  be  very  easy  to  discover.  Where 
plenty  of  water  is  at  hand  for  breeding  ducks,  then  one  drake 
will  be  sufficient  for  five  or  six  ducks,  and,  as  they  are  peace- 
able in  their  nature,  all  (he  stock  rr'ay  be  kept  together,  except 
there  is  an  cbjcct  in  separating  them,  such  as  when  there  are 
different  breeds,  or  there  is  a  desire  to  keep  families  separate. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  ducks,  some  of  which  are 
purely  fancy  ones,  whilst  others  are  chiefly  noted  for  their 
economic  qualities ;  but  it  is  generally  admitted  by  natu- 
ralists, that  the  various  breeds  of  domesticated  ducks  have  all 
descended  from  the  wild  duck,  or  Mallard,  as   it  is  called, 


The  Ayleshiry  Duck.  137 

which  is  to  be  found  over  all  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  most 
parts  of  North  America,  and  has  also  been  seen  in  portions 
of  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia,  though  it  is  most 
numerous  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is 
not  much  unlike  the  Rouen  in  its  plumage,  though  more 
upright  in  shape  ;  and,  as  is  generally  the  case  with  wild 
birds,  it  is  much  more  active  in  its  habits.  It  is  found  cliiefly 
in  marshes  and  fens,  and,  in  parts  of  the  West  and  South 
especially,  it  is  shot  in  very  large  numbers,  but  there  are 
many  other  parts  of  the  country  where  it  is  also  to  be  met 
with.  In  a  wild  state  ducks  are  monogamous,  and  thus  the 
domesticated  ones  have  been  corrupted  by  civilization.  Wild 
ducks  are  often  tamed,  which  is  done  by  obtaining  the  eggs 
and  hatching  them  under  hens,  when  the  progeny  do  not 
appear  to  seek  for  or  desire  liberty.  In  two  or  three  genera- 
tions they  begin  to  vary  in  colour ;  and,  doubtless,  if  the 
experiment  were  continued  long  enough,  the  breeds  we  now 
have  could  all  be  produced  again  in  this  way.  It  is  a  strange 
fact,  that  it  takes  several  generations  to  teach  tamed  birds  the 
polygamous  customs  of  domesticated  duckdom,  as  they  at 
first  go  in  pairs,  like  their  wild  progenitors,  but  afterwards 
the  descendants  lose  this  trait  of  their  nature. 

The  Aylesbury. — Of  the  many  varieties  of  domestic  ducks, 
probably  the  Aylesbury  is  the  best  known,  and  it  is  found, 
more  or  less,  all  over  the  country.  This  variety,  as  might 
be  supposed,  takes  its  name  from  the  little  thrifty  English 
town,  in  the  neigbourhood  of  which  it  is  kept  in  such  large 
numbers.  It  is  perfectly  white  in  its  plumage,  the  slightest 
discoloured  feather  denoting  impurity  of  breed,  and  being 
regarded  as  a  disqualification  for  the  show  pen.  The  bills 
of  birds  of  this  variety  are  of  a  pale  pink  colour,  and  the 
nearer  they  are  to  the  delicate  tinge  of  a  lady's  finger  nail, 
the  better  are  they  looked  upon,  whilst  their  legs  are  a  bright 
orange.     They  are  certainly  the  most  easily  acclimatised  of 


138  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

all  the  duck  varieties,  often  thriving  in  very  unsuitable 
places ;  and  they  are  hardy,  mature  rapidly,  and  grow  to  a 
great  size.  The  only  difference  between  drakes  and  ducks 
is,  that  the  former  are  rather  larger  than  the  latter,  and  have 
a  curled  feather  in  the  tail,  by  which  the  sex  is  very  easily 
distinguished.  The  average  weight  of  these  birds,  when 
tw^elve  months  old,  is  71b.  for  the  drake,  and  61b.  for  the  duck  ; 
but,  of  course,  by  special  feeding,  such  as  is  adopted  for 
exhibition  birds,  and  those  for  table  purposes,  these  w^eights 
can  be  exceeded  to  a  considerable  extent ;  and  the  winning 
birds  at  the  Birmingham  show  of  1882,  were  upwards  of 
201b.  the  pair.  Ducklings  generally  weigh,  if  properly  fed, 
about  41b.  when  seven  or  eight  weeks  old,  wdiich  is  the  usual 
age  for  killing  :  for  when  they  get  older  their  adult  feathers 
begin  to  form,  and  they  are  neither  so  plump,  nor  yet  so 
presentable  on  the  table.  The  nearest  in  appearance  are 
Pekins,  but  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  distinguish  Aylesburys 
from  them,  as  the  pure-bred  Aylesburys  are  perfectly  white,  of 
a  boat  shape,  with  short  legs  and  a  long  fine  neck ;  and  any 
deviation  from  these  points  denotes  impurity.  We  often  see 
so-called  Aylesburys  with  a  partially  erect  body,  yellowdsh 
bills,  or  canary-coloured  plumage,  all,  or  any  of  which,  show 
that  Pekin  blood  has  been  introduced,  too  many  of  our  birds 
beiug  thus  crossed  now^-a-days.  We  do  not  object  to  this 
cross,  and  it  is  doubtless  at  times  very  advantageous,  but  we 
prefer  to  do  it  ourselves,  and  not  have  others  sell  us  as  pure- 
bred stock  birds  that  have  been  so  adulterated. 

The  Rouen. — This  may  be  regarded  as  the  handsomest 
of  all  the  larger  varieties  of  the  duck  tribes,  and,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  is  like  the  wild  duck  in  its  plumage.  But 
domestication  has  resulted  in  its  losing  the  more  graceful 
shape  of  the  latter,  for  it  is  decidedly  thicker  and  heavier  in 
build,  but  has  the  decided  advantage  of  being  more  easily 
fattened.     The  drake  has  a  clear  yellow  bill,  with  a  slight 


The  Pekin.  139 

greenish  tinge,  and  in  sliape,  long  and  broad.  The  head  is 
rich  green,  glossed  with  purple,  which  extends  down  the 
neck,  where  there  is  a  ring  of  pure  white.  The  breast  is  a  rich 
deep  claret  brown,  and  the  under  parts  are  a  delicate  French 
grey.  The  back  is  a  rich  greenish  black,  and  the  curls  in  the 
drake's  tail  are  dark  green.  The  wings  are  greyish  brown, 
and  have  a  ribbon  mark  across  them,  this  being  of  a  bright 
and  distinct  blue,  with  a  white  edge  on  each  side.  The  flights 
are  grey  and  brown,  and  the  legs  orange.  The  duck  has  a 
brown  head,  with  two  distinct  shaded  lines  on  each  side. 
The  breast  is  brown,  pencilled  over  with  a  darker  shade  of 
the  same  colour,  and  the  wing  has  a  ribbon  mark  like  that 
of  the  drake.  The  weight  of  these  birds  is  about  six  t(^ 
eight  pounds,  and  the  heaviest  pair  at  Birmingham  show 
in  1882,  was  over  twenty-one  pounds,  but  once  this  has  been 
exceeded  by  nearly  two  pounds.  The  Eouens  grow  to  a 
greater  size  than  the  Aylesbury,  but  take  a  considerably 
longer  time  about  it,  and  on  this  account  are  not  so  profit- 
able for  market  purposes.  We  therefore  regard  the  Ayles- 
bury as  being  the  better  of  the  two,  for  a  Rouen  duckling  at 
eight  weeks  is  no  larger  than  an  Aylesbury  at  six  weeks. 
They  are,  however,  equally  as  hardy  and  as  prolific,  though 
their  eggs  are  not  quite  so  large ;  are  as  easily  reared,  and 
have  one  decided  advantage,  namely,  that  as  their  plumage 
is  dark,  they  do  not  show  dirt  Su  soon,  and  consequently 
suit  places  where  the  white-feathered  birds  would  always 
look  filthy. 

The  Pekin. — The  Pekin  is  a  recent  introduction,  and,  as 
the  name  implies,  is  a  native  of  the  Celestial  Empire.  It 
was  first  heard  of  in  1873,  when  specimens  were  imported 
into  the  United  States,  and  they  w^ere  hailed  with  great 
eagerness.  Soon  afterwards  a  few  were  imported  into  Eng- 
land, and,  from  their  large  size,  splendid  laying  powers, 
great  hardiness,  and  striking  appearance,  soou  won  favour. 


140  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

becoming  very  popular  indeed;  but  they  have  not  main- 
tained their  position,  for  they  are  larger  in  frame  than  in 
flesh,  and  have  an  abundant  plumage,  which  gives  them  the 
appearance  of  greater  bulk  than  they  actually  possess.  They 
do  not  mature  so  rapidly  as  the  Aylesbury,  and  their  flesh  is 
not  of  the  same  rich  and  delicate  flavour  as  is  that  of  the 
Aylesbury,  Kouen,  or  Cayuga.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
heavy  layers  of  large  well-flavoured  eggs ;  the  eggs  are,  as  a 
rule,  very  fertile  indeed,  and  the  ducklings  easy  to  rear,  for 
which  reasons  they  have  been  largely  crossed  with  the  Ayles- 
bury, in  order  to  counteract  the  evils  of  in-breeding  in  some 
strains  of  the  latter  variety.  Many  of  the  winning  show 
Aylesburys  are  so  crossed,  the  canary  tinge  in  the  plumage, 
yellowish  bills,  and  the  peculiar  carriage  being  the  best 
signs  of  this  cross.  The  Pekin  differs  from  all  other  ducks 
in  the  shape  and  carriage  of  its  body,  which  is  of  a  peculiar 
boat  shape.  The  legs  are  set  well  back,  and  the  bird. walks 
rather  upright  or  penguin  fashion.  The  head  is  large,  and 
the  neck  long ;  the  legs  and  bill  are  of  a  rich  yellow,  and 
the  plumage  generally  has  a  peculiar  cream  colour  running 
through  it,  sometimes  scarcely  noticeable,  but  often  so 
decided  that  it  is  really  a  canary  colour.  It  is  very  graceful 
on  the  water,  and  for  crossing  with  the  Aylesbury  is  a  very 
valuable  variety.  The  progeny  are  easily  fattened,  and  have 
good  flesh,  two  most  important  matters  to  those  who  wish 
to  obtain  a  rapid  return. 

The  Cayuga. — This  is  a  variety  which  deserves  to  be 
much  more  kept  than  it  now  is,  for  it  is  a  most  useful  fowl, 
of  capital  size,  and  extraordinarily  good  as  a  laj'er.  Cayugas 
are  very  hardy,  mature  rapidly,  fatten  well,  and  their  flesh 
is  of  high  flavour — said  to  be  even  better  than  that  of  the 
wild  duck.  The  drakes  weigh  about  nine  pounds,  and  the 
ducks  about  a  pound  less,  when  matured ;  and  they  have  a 
very  good  characteristic,  namely,  that  they  do   not  wander 


The  Aftiscovy,  141 

away  from  home,  but  can  be  left  at  liberty  without  fear  of 
their  straying  away.  They  are  very  similar  in  colour  to  the 
East  Indian  ducks,  being  of  a  brilliant  black  throughout,  with 
lustrous  green  reflections  on  the  head,  neck,  and  wings ; 
both  males  and  females  have  a  bright  purple  or  claret  brown 
tinge  on  the  back  and  wings,  but  the  secondaries  are  more 
blue  than  green ;  the  drake  also  is  more  strongly  tinted 
with  green  than  the  duck.  The  drake's  bill  is  greenish 
yellow,  but  not  so  yellow  as  the  Kouens,  and  it  has  a  clear 
black  bean  at  the  tip.  The  bill  of  the  duck  is  black  at  the 
base,  and  tipped  with  a  greenish  slate  colour ;  and  the  colour 
of  the  bill,  like  that  of  the  Rouen,  changes  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  shape  of  the  bill  differs  from  that 
of  any  of  the  other  breeds  already  named,  as  it  does  not 
come  straight  from  the  skull,  but  curves  down  to  the  centre 
and  up  towards  the  tip,  in  dish  shape.  The  legs  are  of  a 
smoky  orange  colour,  and,  from  the  colour  of  its  plumage, 
the  Cayuga  is  very  suitable  for  any  place,  whilst  its 
economic  qualities  make  it  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all 
water  fowls. 

The  Muscovy. — This  duck  was  brought  from  South 
America,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Peruvian  '* 
duck,  but  the  name  usually  given  to  it  refers  to  its  musky 
odor.  The  drake  is  much  larger  than  the  duck,  which  is  a 
good  layer,  hardy,  easily  reared,  and  rich  in  flesh.  Being 
most  pugnacious  and  tyrannical,  the  muscovy  duck  cannot  be 
recommended  for  farmyard  purposes.  No  other  foAvl  can 
exist  with  comfort,  and  it  is  best  either  to  have  no  other 
birds  about  the  place,  or  to  confine  them  to  a  run  of  their 
own,  which  is  not  always  a  convenient  matter.  Of  this 
variety  there  are  the  black,  blue,  mottled,  and  white  ;  the 
feathers  are  very  profuse  and  long,  and  in  the  dark  drake  the 
colour  is  exceedingly  lustrous.  The  head  is  noticeable  for  a 
fleshy  bunch  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  there  is  also  a  red 


142  Profitable  Pottltry  Keeping. 

fleshy  arc  round  the  eye,  the  face  being  of  the  same  substance, 
and  bare.  The  drake  is  furnished  much  more  profusely 
than  the  duck,  and  the  sex  is  much  more  easily  distinguished 
than  in  any  other  breed,  notwithstanding  the  entire  absence 
of  the  usual  curl  in  the  tail,  as  the  male  bird  is  generally 
three  or  four  pounds  heavier  than  the  female.  These  birds 
are  by  no  means  pleasing  in  appearance,  and  are  not  to  be 
recommended  for  the  reasons  already  given,  though  they 
make  an  exceedingly  valuable,  but  infertile,  cross  with  any 
of  the  large  breeds,  the  muscovy  drakes  being  used. 

In  addition  to  the  five  chief  varieties  of  ducks  which  we 
have  mentioned  there  are  several  others,  but  these  are 
chiefly  fancy  ones,  and  consequently  scarcely  fall  within  our 
province.  We  may,  however,  be  permitted  to  say,  that  for 
such  as  have  a  piece  of  ornamental  water,  there  is  nothing 
prettier,  or  will  add  to  its  beauty  more,  than  a  few  of  the 
rich-coloured  Mandarins  or  Carolinos.  The  small  black  East 
Indian  breed  is  also  very  good  for  this  purpose,  but  it  is 
difticult  to  get  hardy  or  strong  birds,  for  in-breeding  has  been 
so  much  resorted  to,  in  order  to  obtain  diminutive  size,  that 
the  breed  has  really  been  ruined.  Where  the  place  is  clean 
and  free  from  smoke  and  dirt,  the  White  Call,  or  decoy  ducks, 
are  very  nice,  and  this  variety  has  one  decided  advantage, 
namely,  that  it  is  tame  and  domesticated,  not  given  to  fly  or 
wander  away,  like  some  of  the  other  birds.  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  many  other  varieties,  such  as  Spotted  Bills, 
Whistlers,  Pintails,  and  Kasarkas,  so  that  those  who  desire 
ornamental   waterfowl,   need   have   no    difficulty   whatever. 

In  the  keeping  of  ducks,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  clear 
idea  as  to  the  object  for  which  they  are  to  be  kept.  As  we 
have  previously  pointed  out,  a  reasonable  amount  of  spaco 
and  sufficient  water  for  the  breeding  birds  must  be  provided, 
and  it  is  of  no  use  attempting  to  keep  and  breed  from  ducka 
cooped  up  in  a  very  small  run.     In  that  case  it  is  better  to 


Management  of  Dticks*  143 

buy  eggs  and  hatch  them,  or  buy  the  ducklings,  when  very 
young,  and  rear  them.  But,  granting  that  the  place  is 
suitable,  then  in  rearing  the  birds,  those  intended  for  early 
killing  require  to  be  treated  in  a  different  fashion,  to  those 
that  are  to  be  kept  for  future  breeding  purposes,  or  to  be  sold. 
If  birds  destined  for  the  table  are  fed  upon  foods  that  develop 
bone,  or  that  which  is  offal  in  the  birds  when  they  are  killed, 
then  there  is  a  direct  waste,  for  these  things  cannot  be  eaten, 
and  prevent  the  laying  on  of  that  flesh,  which  is,  or  should  be, 
the  aim  and  object  of  fattening.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
feed  birds  that  have  to  be  reared  to  maturity,  on  flesh-forming 
foods  alone,  would  be  equally  as  foolish,  for,  in  that  case,  there 
would  not  be  sufficient  bone  to  support  the  flesh,  and,  though 
the  bird  might  apparently  thrive  for  a  time,  it  would  begin  to 
fail  before  long,  and  probably  die.  It  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood, that  an  undue  forcing  of  any  part  of  the  nature  of  the  bird, 
cannot  but  be  at  the  expense  of  some  other  part ;  consequently, 
if  too  much  prolonged,  the  balance  of  the  system  is  upset, 
and  the  bird  dies.  This  is  the  reason  why  birds,  when  fattened, 
begin  to  go  back  and  lose  flesh,  if  the  process  is  extended 
too  much,  and  the  fact  that  feeding  continuously  on  food  of 
a  fattening  nature  induces  disease,  would  appear  to  show 
that  the  statement  of  those  scientific  men,  who  say  that  all 
fat  is  a  disease,  has  something  to  support  it,  although  it  may 
be  that  it  is  the  excess  of  fat,  and  not  the  moderate  quantity 
of  it,  that  really  causes  disease. 

When  keeping  ducks  for  breeding  purposes  it  is  best  to 
give  them  a  running  stream,  if  it  be  convenient  to  do  so,  for 
this  is  much  better  than  a  pond,  but  one  or  the  other  is 
indi^:)en sable.  Two  ducks  should  be  given  to  one  drake,  or, 
if  the  birds  are  young  ones  and  of  a  vigorous  breed,  five  ducks 
may  be  given  to  two  drakes.  Drakes  are  not  to  be  relied 
upon  for  breeding  purposes  when  more  than  two  years  old, 
and  it  is  better,  therefore,  not  to  keep  them  after  that  age, 


144  Pf'ofitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

but  to  fatten  and  kill  them  off.  Ducks  are  capital  layers,  as 
a  rule,  and  the  eggs,  when  the  drake  is  not  older  than  we 
have  just  mentioned,  very  fertile.  In  hatching,  large  Cochin 
or  Brahma  hens  should  be  used,  as  these  can  cover  eleven,  or 
sometimes  thirteen  eggs,  very  easily ;  but,  it  is  necessary  to 
remember,  when  hens  are  used,  that  a  duck  in  sitting  a  nest 
will,  on  going  off  to  feed,  have  a  swim  before  she  returns, 
and,  as  her  feathers  will  be  wet  in  consequence,  the  eggs 
get  the  benefit  of  it.  Eggs  under  hens,  therefore,  must  be 
kept  moist,  or  they  will  not  hatch,  for,  when  this  is  not  done, 
the  inner  skin  gets  hard  and  tough,  so  that  the  little  inmate 
cannot  make  its  way  out.  The  nest  should  be  in  a  moist 
place,  but  if  this  cannot  be  arranged,  then  the  earth  below  it 
must  be  kept  damp,  much  more  damp  than  is  required  for 
fowls.  We  have  always  found  it  very  advantageous  to 
sprinkle  the  eggs  with  a  little  warm  water  when  the  hen  is 
off  feeding,  so  that  the  shells  get  moist  all  over.  Ducks' 
eggs  can  easily  be  hatched  in  incubators,  and  we  have  been 
very  successful  in  this  way  ;  but  one  thing  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  ducks'  and  hens'  eggs  are  not  to  be  put  into  one 
machine,  as  each  kind  requires  different  treatment.  Hens' 
eggs  only  need  a  reasonable  amount  of  moisture,  and  should 
never  be  sprinkled,  whereas,  for  ducks'  eggs,  the  moisture 
trays  are  by  no  means  sufficient,  and  they  should  be  sprinkled 
daily,  so  that  the  air  in  the  machine  will  be  more  heavily 
charged  with  moisture  than  is  good  for  ordinary  eggs.  Not 
only  so,  but  duck  eggs  hatch  all  the  better  if  given  con- 
siderably more  air,  and  a  longer  time  for  cooling,  than  is 
good  for  hens'  eggs,  and  for  these  reasons,  it  will  be  seen 
that  separate  machines  are  required  for  the  two  kinds  of  eggs. 
The  period  of  incubation  for  ducks  is  twenty-eight  days, 
but,  when  the  eggs  are  very  fresh,  they  very  often  hatch  a  day 
or  two  earlier.  If  the  sprinkling  of  the  eggs  is  attended  to, 
there  is  seldom  any  loss  during  the  process  of  hatching;  but, 


Feeding  Ducklings,  145 

in  order  that  nil  may  come  out  together,  or  within  a  short 
time  of  each  other,  it  is  best  to  select  eggs  as  nearly  equal 
in  age  as  possible.  Duck  eggs  should  be  tested  in  the  way 
we  shall  describe  for  hens'  eggs;  but  it  is  best  to  make 
the  first  examination  on  the  ninth  or  tenth  day,  and  the 
water  test  on  the  twenty-fifth  day.  Of  course,  a  daily  look 
at  the  eggs  is  advisable;  and  if  any  get  broken,  all  must  be 
washed,  and  the  nest  re-made.  As  a  rule,  we  do  not  approve 
of  the  plan  of  removing  any  of  the  little  things  from  under 
the  hen,  should  the  hatching  be  irregular ;  but  if  any  are 
greatly  delayed  in  hatching,  then  those  ducklings  that  are 
dry,  may  be  taken  away,  and  put  in  a  flannel  covered  basket, 
near  the  fire.  They  need,  however,  to  have  something 
against  which  they  can  put  their  backs,  and  thus  a  good 
cushion  may  be  put  over  the  flannel,  of  course,  seeing  that 
there  is  enough  ventilation  through  the  sides  of  the  basket, 
or  the  ducklings  may  all  be  smothered.  The  morning  after 
the  hatching  is  completed,  the  hen  and  her  brood  should 
be  removed  to  a  coop,  placed  under  a  shed ;  and,  as  they 
do  not  require  any  food  for  the  first  twenty-four  hours 
after  being  hatched,  they  will  now  be  ready  for  their  first 
meal,  v/hich  should  consist  of  hard-boiled  eggs,  chopped  fine, 
and  mixed  with  boiled  rice.  This  food  may  be  continued  for 
two  or  three  days,  when  Spratt's  or  Chamberlain's  foods,  or 
boiled  rico,  or  barley  meal,  the  two  latter  mixed  with  greaves, 
should  be  given,  if  the  birds  are  intended  to  be  killed  at  an 
early  age  ;  but  if  not,  the  greaves  should  be  dispensed  with, 
and  the  boiled  rice  reduced  in  quantity,  to  made  only  an 
occasional  food.  The  greaves  consist  almost  entirely  of  fat, 
whilst  the  rice  contains  only  a  trace  of  bone-forming  sub- 
stances in  it,  so  that  both  these  foods  are  admirable  for  the 
purpose  of  forcing  birds  for  the  table  ;  but,  they  are  not  at 
all  calculated  to  build  up  the  frames  of  those  birds  intended 
to  be  reared  to  an  adult  age.     In  the  latter  it  is  necessary 

L 


146  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

to  have  slower  growth,  less  development  of  fat  or  flesh,  and 
more  stamina ;  in  the  former  all  that  is  required,  is  to  get 
as  much  flesh  as  possible,  in  as  short  a  time  as  possible, 
with  little  bone,  or  other  ofi'al.  Thus,  when  they  are  to  be 
reared,  ducks  should  have  no  forcing  food,  and  plain  barley- 
meal  or  ground  oats,  made  into  a  crumbly  mass,  will  be  the 
best  food.  It  may  be  well  to  give  boiled  rice  as  a  variation, 
for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  variety  is  appreciated  by  the 
birds  ;  but,  if  it  is  given,  it  should  have  a  good  handful  of 
bone  meal,  to  every  quarfc-measureful  of  the  rice,  which  will 
make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  bone-forming  qualities. 

As  very  many  persons  do  not  know  the  best  way  to  prepare 
boiled  rice,  we  will  give  our  method,  for  this  food  is  a  first- 
class  one  for  fattening  any  kind  of  fowl.  The  kind  known 
as  poultry  rice  can  be  bought  from  nearly  all  corn  dealers  at 
a  reasonable  price,  and  it  is  good  enough  for  the  purpose,  if 
the  sample  is  a  clean  one.  The  w^ay  to  prepare  it  is  to 
put,  say,  a  pint  of  rice  into  a  gallon  pan,  with  three  quarts 
of  water,  a  small  handful  of  the  chopped  greaves,  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  aromatic  compound.  This  we  place  upon  the 
side  of  the  fireplace,  and  allow  it  to  simmer  for  two  or  three 
hours.  In  that  time  the  rice  will  have  swollen  out  and 
absorbed  all  the  water,  so  that  it  will  be  crumbly  moist,  like 
a  well-made  rice  pudding.  If  this  is  given  to  the  birds  when 
warm,  though  not  actually  hot,  the  eagerness  with  which 
they  will  eat  it  will  be  sufficient  proof  of  how  much  they 
relish  it.  Those  who  follow  our  directions  should  remember, 
that  it  must  not  be  allowed  to  boil  in  the  usual  way,  or  it  will 
be  soft  and  sloppy,  but  it  should  be  allowed  to  gently  simmer 
in  the  manner  as  described  by  us,  and  then  it  will  be  all 
that  can  be  desired  in  the  way  of  an  appetising  and  useful 
food. 


Geese  and  Turkeys.  ^147 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 


GEESE   AND   TURKEYS. 


Geese  in  England  — Benefit  to  Crops  —  Breeds  —  Weights  attained  — Management — 
Turkeys— Said  to  be  delicate— Breeds— Management— Fattening. 

We  have  now  nearly  got  to  tlie  end  of  our  list  of  com- 
mercial poultry,  and  come  to  the  two  great — i.e.,  so  far  as 
bulk  is  concerned — varieties.  Of  these  geese  are  the  hardier, 
^and  much  easier  to  rear,  so  that  in  many  places  they  are 
much  preferred  to  turkeys,  if  fat,  bringing  always  a  good 
price  in  the  market.  They  pay  very  well  indeed  for  keep- 
ing, and  the  farmer  will,  as  a  rule,  find  it  worth  his  while 
te  have  a  few  of  them  in  the  autumn,  when  his  grain  crops 
are  off  the  land.  In  the  eastern-middle  counties  of  England 
very  large  numbers  are  kept,  and  a  ride  through  that  portion 
of  the  country  would  be  quite  a  revelation  to  those  who  had 
not  been  there  before.  On  the  fields  and  the  commons,  flocks 
of  geese  and  turkeys  are  to  be  seen,  and  the  place  where  they 
are  not  to  be  found  is  the  exception,  not  the  rule.  They  are 
a  considerable  source  of  profit,  and,  consequently,  are  not 
neglected ;  and  the  vast  numbers  which  are  sent  to  London 
every  year  is  astonishing  to  those  who  are  not  conversant 
with  the  facts  of  the  case.  In  these  counties  the  majority  of 
farmers  breed  their  own  birds,  but  there  are  many  who  buy 
goslings  in  the  early  autumn,  and  simply  fatten  theni  for 
the  market.  In  this  country  the  sale  of  young  goslings  is 
rare,  as  those  who  fatten  hatch  their  own  stock,  and  no 
one  part  of  the  country  is  especially  famous  for  its  geese. 


148  Profitable  Poulhy  Keeping, 

By  putting  on  goslings  in  the  way  we  have  described,  the 
land  is  made  profitable  after  the  crops  are  gathered,  and 
they  do  it  an  immense  amount  of  good.  The  birds  pur- 
chased are  generally  bred  by  those  who  live  near  commons 
or  waste  land,  and  there  is  no  need  why  this  should  not  be 
done  in  every  district.  If  it  were  done,  the  benefit  derived 
would  be  great,  and  probably  the  farmers  near  small  towns 
who  need  it  most,  would  reap  the  benefit,  and  would  also 
supply  a  demand  which  has  generally  to  be  met  from  a  dis- 
tance. 

Of  the  various  breeds  of  geese  the  Toulouse  and  the  Emb- 
den  are  the  chief,  and,  as  a  rule,  for  commercial  purposes,  it 
will  be  found  better  to  select  one  of  these.  The  Toulouse 
is  commonly  known  as  the  grey  goose,  because  its  plumage 
is  of  that  colour;  and  the  Embden  is  called  the  white  goose, 
its  plumage  being  pure  white  throughout.  The  latter  is  said 
to  be  the  earliest  and  best  layer,  which  is  a  very  great  recom- 
mendation, and  its  feathers  always  bring  a  higher  price,  than 
do  those  of  the  coloured  variety.  In  some  places,  however, 
pure  white  birds  would  not  look  at  all  well,  because  of  the 
presence  of  smoke  ;  but,  these  are  considerations  which  must 
be  left  to  be  decided  individually,  according  to  circumstances. 
Both  these  varieties  are  about  equal  in  point  of  size  and 
quality  of  flesh.  At  the  Birmingham  Show  of  1882  the 
weight  of  the  winning  pair  of  grey  geese  was  451b.  4oz.,  and 
of  the  whites  4i)lb.  12oz.;  but  generally  at  that  exhibition 
the  Toulouse  are  heaviest.  Of  course  these  weights  are 
abnormal,  and  only  obtained  by  a  very  careful  and  continued 
system,  which  our  readers  will  do  well  not  to  follow,  but 
be  content  if  they  get  birds  from  121b.  to  181b.  weight, 
for  the  Christmas  market.  In  addition  to  the  varieties 
named,  there  are  the  Sebastopol,  the  Chinese,  the  Canadian, 
and  the  Egyptian,  but  we  do  not  think  that  they  will  be  found 
BO  profitable  as  the  Toulouse  and  the  Embden. 


Manage7ne7it  of  Geese,  149 

A,  capital  description  of  the  method  of  management  ap- 
peared some  years  ago  in  the  Farmer ,  and  was  deemed  worthy 
of  being  reprinted  in  Mr.  Tegetmeier's  Poultry  Book.  This 
we  now  give  for  its  practical  value  : — "A  good- sized  pond, 
with  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  and  good  pasturage,  are  in- 
dispensable to  make  goose-keeping  a  paying  business,  for 
they  are  very  large  consumers.  Let  them  have  an  outhouse 
all  to  themselves,  regularly  supplied  with  clean  straw,  with 
which  to  make  nests  on  the  floor  as  the  laying  season  ap- 
proaches, and  partition  the  nests  off  according  to  the  number 
required.  One  gander  will  be  sufficient  for  three  or  four 
geese.  They  generally  lay  about  twelve  eggs  each,  which 
number  they  will  hatch.  The  eggs,  for  safety,  should  be 
collected  daily  and  placed  in  bran,  until  the  geese,  by  re- 
maining on  their  nests,  show  their  desire  for  sitting.  The 
eggs  must  then  be  placed  under  them,  and  the  house  so 
arranged  that  they  can  have  free  liberty  of  egress  and  ingress 
at  ail  times  of  the  day,  as  they  will  require  food  and  water 
daily,  to  which  they  will  help  themselves,  if  a  pasture-field 
and  pond  of  water  be  near,  and  afterwards  return  to  their 
nests.  Little  attention  is,  therefore,  required  whilst  they  are 
sitting,  beyond  keeping  their  nests  undisturbed,  and  protected 
from  vermin.  When  the  time  of  hatching  has  arrived,  in 
case  any  young  birds  are  out,  see  that  all  shells  are  removed, 
for  fear  they  may  cap  the  other  eggs,  and  thereby  prevent 
their  hatching.  Allow  the  goslings  to  remain  in  the  nest  for 
a  night  and  a  day;  they  will  not  require  feeding  during  that 
time,  but  will  gather  strength  ;  and,  if  the  following 
morning  be  fine  and  sunshiny,  they  can  be  moved  at  once 
upon  a  grass-plot  or  other  convenient  place,  where  they  will 
be  safe,  and  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  nice  young  grass, 
of  which  they  will  soon  partake  (this,  their  natural  food,  suits 
them  better  than  to  be  crammed  with  oatmeal  pellets),  not 
forgetting  to  place  them  some  water  in  a  shallow  vessel^  with 


150  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

which  a  h'ttle  oatmeal  maybe  mixed.  If  the  weather  is  un- 
favourable, they  must  be  confined  in  an  outhouse,  and  plen- 
tifully supplied  with  nice  green  grass  turfs  and  water.  .  .  , 
The  most  critical  time  for  young  geese  is  about  midsummer ; 
if  it  is  very  dry  weather,  and  the  pasturage  and  water  is  not 
plentiful,  it  is  then  desirable  to  give  them  a  few  oats  night 
and  morning  to  assist  nature  over  this  peculiar  juncture, 
and  help  them  on  until  the  stubbles  are  ready  for  them, 
and  when  those  are  cleared  they  will  be  in  nice  condition  for 
fattening,  which  is  best  done  by  making  them  up  in  lots  of 
ten  or  fifteen  in  number,  according  to  the  size  of  the  place, 
supplying  them  with  plenty  of  water  and  an  unlimited 
quantity  of  oats  for  three  weeks,  giving  them  a  clean  bed  of 
straw  when  required  ;  they  will  then  be  ready  for  the  market. 
The  day  previous  to  killing,  turn  them  on  to  the  pond  for  the 
purpose  of  washing  their  feathers,  and  supply  a  clean  bed  of 
straw  in  the  feeding-house  before  their  return ;  but  take 
away  all  food  and  water,  and  let  them  fast  until  killed  the 
next  day,  when  they  must  be  dressed  for  the  market.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  doubt  geese  pay  well  where  there  are 
conveniences  for  keeping  them,  but  they  must  be  well  man- 
aged, and  kept  out  of  the  mowing  grass  and  cornfields,  or 
they  will  soon  do  damage  to  the  amount  of  double  their 
profit.'* 

The  same  plan,  as  is  here  described  for  fattening,  may  be 
adopted  equally  by  those  who  only  rear  the  birds,  as  by  those 
who  breed  them  also  ;  goslings  can  be  bought  about  August 
and  September  at  low  prices,  and  will  fatten  up  very  rapidly, 
if  fed  in  the  way  described.  There  is  only  one  thing  we 
need  add  to  what  has  been  already  said,  and  that  is,  geese 
must  never  be  put  in  compartments  alone  when  fattening,  as 
is  done  with  ordinary  fowls,  for  in  that  case  they  would  fret 
and  lose  flesh,  instead  of  gain  it. 

Turkeys  have  the  name  of  being  very  delicate  and  difficult 


Turkey  Rearzitg,  151 

to  rear,  in  consequence  of  which  they  are  often  not  kept, 
where  they  might  be  with  advantage,  for,  in  a  suitable  place, 
they  are  one  of  the  most  profitable  of  all  domestic  poultry. 
They  are  undoubtedly  delicate  if  kept  on  damp  soil,  but 
where  the  ground  is  dry,  and  the  position  not  too  exposed, 
they  will  do  well.  Just  at  one  period  of  their  growth,  when 
they  are  "shooting  the  red,"  that  is,  when  about  six  weeks 
old,  and  the  red  skin  is  appearing  on  the  head,  they  need 
extra  care  and  to  be  well  sheltered,  for  getting  wet  just  then 
is  almost  certain  to  be  fatal.  The  prices  obtained  for  turkeys, 
and  the  heavy  weights  to  which  they  grow,  make  them  very 
profitable  indeed,  and  wherever  it  can  well  be  done,  we 
should  strongly  urge  that  a  few  of  them  be  kept. 

The  varieties  of  turkeys  known  in  this  country  are  the 
Wild,  Bronze,  Narragansett,  Black,  Buff,  and  White.  Of  these 
the  Wild  is  the  hardiest,  firmest  fleshed,  and  highest  flavored, 
even  when  bred  in  domestication  ;  the  Black  approaches  it 
most  nearly  but  fattens  more  readily,  while  the  Bronze, 
which  closely  resembles  it  in  coloring,  is  the  most  rapid  in 
growth,  quickest  to  fatten,  and  heaviest  of  all.  The  Nar- 
ragan setts  and  Whites  are  the  most  domestic.  Large  size  is  a 
matter  that  must  be  considered,  for  the  price  turkeys  realize 
in  market  increases  with  the  weight,  and  the  fact  contrary 
to  the  rule  in  most  things,  that,  the  price  per  pound  of  a 
thirty-pound  turkey  is  considerably  greater  than  that  of 
one  half  its  size  is  especially  true  in  early  winter,  but  not  at 
all  times  of  the  year. 

Turkeys  are  not  fully  grown  until  they  are  three  or  four 
years  old,  but  it  will  be  found  that  birds  can  be  bred  from, 
without  fear,  when  two  years  of  age.  The  young  birds 
produce  more  eggs  than  the  older  ones,  and  begin  to  lay 
earlier  in  the  season,  and,  also,  are  not  so  savage.  A  turkey 
hen  generally  lays  about  twenty  eggs,  but  she  should  not  be 
allowed  to  sit  all  these  ;  and  it  is  better  to  give  the  first  half- 
dozen  to  hens,  letting  her  have  the  rest  herself,  for  it  is  very 


152  Profimble  Poultry  Keeping, 

cruel,  and  does  not  pay  in  the  long  run,  to  prevent  her  having 
a  nest,  in  addition  to  which,  she  will  prove  a  better  mother 
than  any  hen  could  be. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  twenty- eight  days,  and  the 
first  food  for  the  young  birds  should  be  hard-boiled  egg, 
with  dandelion,  lettuce,  onions,  or  nettles  chopped  up,  and 
all  mixed  with  bread  crumbs ;  and  to  this  may  be  added  a 
little  rice  boiled  in  sweet  skim  milk,  a  little  suet,  or  greaves, 
and  in  cold  weather  a  little  aromatic  compound,  with  grain 
of  all  kinds  for  the  birds,  as  they  get  older.  We  have  also 
heard  the  very  highest  accounts  of  the  value  of  Chamber- 
lain's meal  in  rearing  turkeys,  even  from  those  who  had 
failed  before  they  used  it.  A  fresh  site  for  the  coop  is  neces- 
sary every  morning,  and  a  little  exercise,  by  letting  the 
mother  out  of  the  coop,  which  must  be  large  and  roomy,  not 
less  than  three  feet  square,  will  do  the  chicks  a  lot  of  good. 
"When  the  birds  are  about  ten  or  twelve  weeks  old  they  may 
be  put  on  to  barleymeal  as  the  staple  food,  mixed  with  a  little 
greaves,  and  alternated  with  corn,  barley,  and  small  wheat. 
As  soon  as  they  are  deserted  by  the  mother,  the  birds  should 
be  put  in  a  large  roomy  house  at  night ;  and,  it  is  then  neces- 
sary, to  see  that  they  do  not  perch  on  rails  or  hurdles,  as 
crooked  breasts  would  be  the  certain  result. 

Christmas  turkeys  are  shut  up  in  a  light,  dry,  and  roomy 
shed,  or  house,  about  the  first  week  in  November;  and  the 
Norfolk  system  is  to  keep  troughs  filled  with  maize  and 
good  barley  always  near  them,  but  giving  twice  a  day  a  good 
meal  of  just  as  much  barleymeal,  mixed  with  skim  milk,  as 
they  can  then  eat  up,  and  also  milk  to  drink.  The  troughs 
are  cleaned  every  day,  and  all  surplus  food  removed.  Sliced 
mangolds,  turnips,  swedes,  and  cabbages  are  also  given  ;  and 
plenty  of  sand,  lime,  and  brick  dust  kept  in  one  corner,  so 
that  the  birds  can  get  it  when  they  wish.  This  is  all  the 
feeding  they  need,  to  bring  them  up  into  prime  condition  for 
llie  market.     They  are  killed  by  having  the  neck  broken. 


The  Selection  of  Stock  Birds.  153 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 

THE    SELECTION    OF    STOCK   BIRDS. 

Importance  of  Care  in  Selection — Influence  of  Parents — Selection  for  Layers — 
Selection  for  Table  Fowls—  State  of  Breeding Stoek — Buying  Birds — Buying 
Eggs  for  Sitting  -  Space  for  Breeding  Stock — Birds  not  to  be  Related— Evils 
of  In-breeding — Number  of  Hens  to  Cock — When  to  Expect  Fertile  Eggs — 
Feeding — Importance  of  Health  and  Condition. 

The  choosing  of  birds  or  animals  for  breeding  is  one  of  the 
most  important  matters,  that  can  command  the  attention  of 
any  keeper  of  live  stock,  for,  in  accordance  with  the  care  and 
skill  given  to  it,  will  be  the  quality  of  the  produce.  Parents 
impress  upon  their  progeny  those  characteristics  which  they 
themselves  possess,  in  so  far  as  there  are  no  counteracting 
influences.  If  these  characteristics  are  good  ones,  they  should 
be  preserved  by  judicious  mating,  but  if  they  are  bad  ones, 
then,  it  must  be  the  object  of  the  breeder,  to  get  rid  of  them 
as  quickly  as  possible.  And  in  order  to  secure  this  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  influence  of  each  parent, 
for  the  influence  on  either  side  is  different  to  that  on  the 
other.  Without  this  knowledge,  there  can  be  no  possibility 
of  arriving  at  a  true  appreciation  of  the  question. 

We  have  said  that  the  influence  of  each  parent  is  different, 
and,  to  this  we  may  add,  that,  as  a  rule,  the  characteristics  of 
both  can  be  traced  in  the  offspring.  Sometimes,  however, 
qualities  are  developed  which  were  not  found  in  the  parents, 
nor  yet  can  be  regarded  as  a  combination  of  qualities  from 


154  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

either  side.  As  these  are  generally  characteristics  to  be 
avoided,  it  will  most  probably  be  found  on  examination,  that 
they  have  descended  from  the  grandparents,  or  from  progeni- 
tors even  further  back  than  that.  Hence  the  value  of  pure 
stock,  as  there  is  with  it  a  much  greater  certainty  in  breeding. 

It  may  be  taken  as  a  certain  rule  that  the  male  parent 
affects  the  external  structure,  the  shape,  and  the  outward 
appearance  generally,  including  the  locomotive  peculiarities  ; 
and  that  the  female  parent  controls  the  internal  structure, 
the  constitution,  the  temper,  and  the  habits.  But,  we  must 
in  this  be  regarded  as  speaking  of  pure-bred  birds,  for  with 
such  as  have  been  bred  in  any  sort  of  way,  in  which  all  or 
no  breeds  have  been  mixed  up,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
look  for  any  certainty,  as  there  are  constantly  unexpected 
and  unwished-for  developments  turning  up.  The  purer  the 
breed,  the  greater  the  certainty  of  obtaining  those  points  or 
qualities  we  are  seeking  for,  and  it  must  also  be  noted,  that, 
if  one  of  the  parents  is  of  a  purer  descent  than  the  other, 
it  will  exert  the  greater  influence  upon  the  chickens. 
This  will  account  for  the  rapidity  with  which  a  pure-bred 
cock  improves  the  birds  bred  in  a  farmyard,  when  one  is 
introduced,  which  doubtless  many  of  our  readers  have 
observed. 

Considering  these  facts,  it  may  be  worth  our  while  to 
study  the  question  of  the  influence  of  parents,  a  little  more 
closely  than  is  usualty  done,  and,  taking  the  male  parent 
first,  it  will  be  found,  as  already  indicated,  that  it  affects  the 
external  structure  as  well  as  the  shape  of  the  bird.  Thus, 
in  selecting  cocks  for  breeding  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to 
see  that  they  have  size,  which,  of  course,  means  bone  and 
flesh,  not  merely  feathers,  and  that  they  are  of  a  right 
shape.  If  a  bird  is  short  in  either  of  these  qualities,  as 
certain  as  can  be  such  defect  will  be  transmitted  to  its 
descendants.    Thus  it  will  be  seen  how  foolish  it  is  to  choose 


Selection  of  Stock  Birds.  155 

a  bird  small  or  of  a  bad  shape,  no  matter  how  good  be  may 
be  in  other  respects.  It  can  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  have 
a  bird  unshapely,  even  though  this  does  not  influence  its 
profitable  qualities  ;  but,  whilst  we  should  not  kill  a  good 
laying  hen  if  she  was  mis-shapen,  yet  we  would  not  breed 
from  such  an  one,  as  the  weakness  inherent  from  the 
deformity  would  probably  transmit  itself  to  the  chickens, 
and  thus  more  than  counterbalance  the  merits  of  the  parent. 
As  a  rule,  those  birds  are  best  which  look  best.  And  again, 
it  would  be  unwise  to  use  for  stock  purposes,  any  bird  weak, 
or  deformed  in  his  organs  of  locomotion,  for,  though  he 
might  be  as  good  upon  the  table  as  another  one,  perfect  in 
these  respects,  his  defects  would  be  reproduced  in  his 
progeny,  and  probably  intensified.  As  an  example  of  this, 
we  may  mention  that  the  breeding  for  white  faces  in  Spanish 
— though  the  white  face  is  not  a  defect  but  a  sport — having 
been  carried  to  a  ridiculous  extent,  has  so  weakened  the 
breed  that  it  is  now  a  delicate  variety,  not  to  be  recommended 
for  general  purposes.  In  selecting  a  cock  bird,  therefore, 
for  breeding,  and  this  equally  applies  to  all  varieties,  whether 
pure  or  otherwise,  one  should  be  chosen,  close  and  firm  in 
body,  not  too  large  in  size — that  is,  not  abnormally  larger 
than  the  majority  of  his  kindred,  though  a  little  larger  is  an 
advantage — clean  on  leg,  tall,  and  active  in  his  habits.  Such 
a  bird  will  not  counteract,  but,  rather  assist  those  qualities 
which,  in  a  hen,  conduce  to  the  breeding  of  good  layers.  But, 
if  a  bird  is  wanted  for  breeding  table  fowls,  one  must  be 
chosen  heavy  in  body,  deep  in  breast,  short  on  the  leg,  and, 
perhaps,  not  so  active,  though  by  this  we  do  not  necessarily 
mean  a  non-flying  bird,  as  these  generally  develop  flesh  on 
the  thighs,  and  not  on  the  breast.  The  former  may  be  heavier 
in  weight,  but  the  meat  is  not  carried  in  the  best  place,  and 
is  not  of  the  same  quality.  A  bird  similar  to  what  we  have 
described,  will  help  forward  the  end  we  have  in  view,  and 


156  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

assimilate  his  qualities  readily  with  those  of  the  hens  to 
which  he  may  be  mated,  if  they  are  chosen  with  equal  care. 

It  will  be  remembered,  we  stated  that  the  hen  affects  the 
internal  structure  and  vital  organs  of  her  chickens,  in  which 
are  included  the  laying  qualities,  as  well  as  the  temperament 
and  the  constitution.  A  good,  quiet  mother,  generally  pro- 
duces pullets  that  exhibit  the  same  qualities  in  their  turn, 
if  she  is  properly  mated,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  restless, 
uncertain  mother,  will  impress  these  characteristics  upon  her 
chickens.  A  poor  layer,  must  not  be  expected  to  produce 
hens  much  better  than  herself,  no  matter  witli  what  bird  she 
is  paired,  and  though  there  is  wisdom  in  the  belief  of  old 
henwives,  that  it  is  always  well  to  breed  from  hens  that  are 
known  to  be  good  layers,  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  cock 
does  not  counteract  this  influence.  By  judicious  selection 
of  the  male  bird,  it  may  be  possible  to  gradually  improve 
the  laying  powers,  as  it  is  possible  to  alter  the  characteristics 
of  any  birds  ;  but,  of  course,  this  can  only  be  a  slow  process, 
and  it  is  better  to  commence  breeding  with  suitable  birds, 
and  to  depend  upon  the  hens  for  such  an  improvement, 
instead  of  on  the  cocks.  As  shown  when  speaking  of  the 
male  birds,  the  purer  the  parents  are,  the  more  certainty 
there  is  in  breeding,  and  this  is  the  case  equally  with  both 
sexes,  though,  as  the  cocks  influence  the  externals,  the  result 
is  more  seen  on  their  part,  than  on  that  of  the  hens. 

When  breeding  with  the  object  of  producing  good  laying 
fowls,  the  hens  selected  should  be  shapely,  have  no  grave 
defects,  and,  above  all,  be  known  as  good  layers,  or  from  a 
good  laying  strain.  To  be  sure  of  this  latter  point  may 
involve  some  trouble  ;  but  it  need  not  be  very  great,  as  any 
one  who  attends  to  the  fowls,  and  really  takes  an  interest  in 
them,  knows  which  are  the  best  layers.  By  this  means,  it 
is  quite  possible  to  very  largely  increase  the  laying  powers  of 
any  strain  of  birds  ;  and,  the  care  thus  taken,  will  be  rewarded 


Selection  of  Brood  Hens,  157 

by  a  great  difference  in  the  production  of  eggs.  Of  course, 
if  the  male  birds  are  bred  from  hens  that  are  known  to  be 
good  layers,  then  this  will  greatly  facilitate  the  matter. 
Therefore,  where  it  is  thought  desirable  to  have  laying  birds 
only,  or,  in  places  where  eggs  are  most  in  demand,  it  is  better 
to  have  non-sitting  fowls,  such  as  Minorcas,  Leghorns, 
Andalusians,  or  Houdans,  as  these  birds  have  been  bred  as 
layers  for  generations;  and,  their  attention  not  being  taken 
off  by  maternal  duties,  they  consequently  are  much  better 
layers.  On  the  question  of  selecting  hens  for  breeding  table 
fowls,  very  little  more  need  be  said,  than  what  we  have  already 
remarked  in  connection  with  the  male  birds,  except  that  it 
is  important  to  choose  quiet,  contented  fowls,  as  these  will  be 
found  to  fatten  up  best  of  all ;  restless  birds  never  do  this, 
and  as  a  consequence  are  not  profitable.  The  breeds  to  be 
chosen  should  be  either  La  Fleche,  Dorkings,  Creve-coeurs, 
Houdans,  Langshans,  Plymouth  Rocks,  or  such  crosses  as 
Game-Dorking.  These  must  be  selected  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  chapter  on  laying  out  the 
poultry-yard,  where  we  spoke  of  the  soil  and  position  of  the 
poultry-yard,  and  the  influence  these  must  have  upon  the 
breeds  kept. 

Closely  associated  with  the  question  of  breed  to  be  chosen, 
is  that  of  the  general  condition,  and  state  of  the  birds  selected 
for  breeding.  Here  we  must  emphatically  warn  our  readers 
against  what  we  have  indirectly  mentioned  before,  namely, 
that  no  bird  tainted  with  disease,  or  organically  deformed, 
must  be  bred  from  in  any  way.  Such  diseases  and  defects 
wdll  be  transmitted,  probably  in  an  intensified  form,  to  the 
descendants,  which  in  their  turn  will  probably  be  the  means 
of  passing  them  on  to  others.  There  can  be  no  question 
that  the  breeding  in  of  defects,  or  the  transmission  of  disease, 
are  very  easy  matters,  whilst  the  breeding  of  thorn  out  is 
not   only   difficult,    but    often    impossible.     Stamina,  and 


158  Profitable  Poidtry  Keeping, 

good  condition  are  two  most  important  elements,  which 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  poultry  breeder,  as  with- 
out these  it  is  impossible  to  succeed ;  and,  whilst  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  other  qualities  of  the  birds 
are  suitable,  nothing  should  ever  induce  the  use  of  sickly 
ones  for  stock  purposes.  And,  also,  in  deciding  upon  the 
selection  of  breeding  fowls,  there  must  be  a  clear  understand- 
ing as  to  what  is  required — we  mean,  to  what  purpose  the 
chickens  are  to  be  put,  and  then,  keeping  this  end  in  view, 
let  them  be  chosen  accordingly.  Hap-hazard  breeding  never 
did,  and  never  will,  succeed  ;  though,  at  times,  a  lucky  hit  is 
made,  but  there  is  no  certainty  as  to  its  being  repeated.  A 
careful  study  of  the  birds  to  be  so  used  will  be  well  repaid ; 
and,  if  they  have  to  be  purchased,  it  will  be  time  well  spent 
to  make  inquiries  as  to  the  qualities  of  the  birds.  Poultry 
fanciers  expend  both  time  and  money  freely,  in  order  to 
obtain  all  the  information  possible  about  a  bird  they  pur- 
pose buying,  knowing  the  great  injury  which  may  be  done 
through  want  of  a  little  care  ;  and  the  matter  is  equally  as 
important  to  the  poultry  farmer.  Because  of  the  want  of 
information,  we  do  not  advise  bujdng  in  a  poultry  show, 
except  it  can  be  obtained,  and  many  a  yard  has  been  ruined 
by  diseased,  or  otherwise  unsuitable  birds,  bought  in  this 
way.  The  best  way  is  to  go,  or  send,  to  known  breeders, 
who  have  a  reputation  to  keep  up;  and,  though  a  little  more 
money  may  have  to  be  paid  in  the  first  instance,  it  will  prob- 
ably be  found  the  cheapest  way  in  the  end.  In  the  spring  of 
the  year,  a  very  common  way  of  getting  fresh  blood  into  a 
yard,  or,  of  commencing  one  afresh,  is  to  purchase  eggs,  and 
if  fairly  dealt  with,  this  is  both  a  cheap  and  good  means  of 
doing  £0 ;  but,  unfortunately,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  roguery 
in  the  business.  Where  it  is  desired  to  get  the  yard  into 
full  operation,  or  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  new  blood  at 
once,  this  plan  will  not  do,  and  birds  must  be  bought  instead. 


Management  of  Breeding  Pens,  159 

We  now  come  to  tlie  putting  together  of  the  breeding- 
pens,  and  the  management  of  the  birds  in  them.  In  the 
first  place,  there  is  the  question  of  space  to  be  given  to  them, 
and  it  is  here  necessary  to  utter  a  warning — though  we  have 
dwelt  on  the  question  of  runs  already — against  the  very 
common  practice,  of  putting  breeding  stock  into  very  small 
houses  and  runs.  Nor  do  we,  on  the  other  hand,  think  the 
system  of  breeding  from  the  ordinary  stock  a  wise  one,  as  this 
does  not  permit  of  the  proper  improvement  of  the  stock,  which 
might  otherwise  take  place.  The  best  plan,  is  either  of  those 
we  have  already  recommended,  namely,  to  have  separate 
houses  in  which  the  birds  can  be  kept,  or  a  row  of  houses  with 
large  open  runs.  Weakly  chickens  are  very  often  caused  by 
want  of  sufficient  exercise  on  the  part  of  the  parents  ;  and  it 
will  be  found,  that  the  more  liberty  that  can  be  given  to 
the  breeding  stock,  the  hardier  the  chickens  will  be.  There- 
fore, it  should  be  a  rule,  that,  whether  the  laying  fowls  have 
an  abundance  of  room  or  not,  the  breeders  must  have  plenty  ; 
and,  upon  no  consideration,  should  the  latter  be  cooped  up  in 
small  runs.  We  have  given  in  a  previous  article,  the  smallest 
amount  of  space  necessary  to  keep  birds  in  health  and  con- 
dition, and  this  will  be  a  guide  to  our  readers  in  this  respect. 
A  sufficient  number  of  chickens  can  be  bred  from  one  pen 
of  fowls,  in  a  single  year,  to  stock  a  good-sized  yard,  and  thus 
it  is  worth  while  giving  them  sufficient  room. 

Then  it  is  a  most  important  matter,  that  a  cock  and  hen 
mated  together  for  breeding  purposes,  should  not  be  related 
to  each  other.  A  very  large  amount  of  harm  has  been  done 
by  in-breeding,  and  the  degeneracy  of  many  of  the  races  of 
high  class  poultry,  is  entirely  due  to  this  practice.  Poultry 
fanciers,  whose  object  is  to  obtain  fine  feather,  or  peculiar  con- 
formation, regardless  of  all  commercial  considerations,  may, 
if  they  think  fit,  resort  to  in-breeding,  for  they  are  willing  to 
pay  the  price ;  but,  those  to  whom  it  is  necessary  that  their 


i6o  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

birds  shall  have  stamina,  size,  and  unimpaired  laying  powers, 
must  not  indulge  in  so  foolish  a  practice.  The  state  of  the 
breeding  stock,  in  very  many  of  the  farmyards  of  this  country, 
•where  we  find  miserable,  weedy  mongrels,  of  no  use  either 
for  laying  or  to  put  upon  the  table,  is  very  largely  due  to 
the  in-breeding  which  has  gone  on  generation  after  genera- 
tion, and  to  the  want  of  regard  for  the  selection  of  breeding 
birds.  Of  course,  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  fact,  that  all  our 
various  breeds  of  birds  have  been  produced  by  more  or  less 
in-breeding  ;  but  even  acknowledging  that  much,  it  has  been 
a  gradual  process,  and  not  a  forced  one.  Therefore,  it  is 
more  than  necessary,  that  the  birds  mated  together  should  be 
unrelated.  Only  by  care  in  putting  them  together,  can  this 
be  secured  ;  but  the  result  is  worth  all  the  trouble. 

The  next  subject  which  must  be  touched  upon,  is  that  of 
the  number  of  hens  to  be  put  with  each  cock,  as  the  fertility 
of  the  eggs  will  naturally  greatly  depend  upon  this.  No 
certain  rule  can  be  laid  down  applicable  to  all  breeds,  as 
the  number  varies,  not  only  with  the  breed  itself,  but  with 
the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  kept.  For  in- 
stance, birds  in  a  confined  run  are  more  indolent  and  less 
vigorous  than  those  at  liberty,  whilst  the  state  of  the 
w^eather  has  much  to  do  with  the  question  also  ;  and,  again, 
a  young  bird  should  have  a  larger  harem  than  an  old  one. 
So  far  as  a  rule  can  be  laid  down,  not  more  than  four  hens 
should  be  given  to  a  cock  of  any  of  the  larger  and  heavier 
breeds,  i.e.,  Cochins,  Brahmas,  Dorkings,  Langshans,  and 
Scotch  Greys,  when  in  confinement ;  but,  if  at  liberty,  then 
this  number  may  be  increased  to  six  or  eight.  The  lighter 
breeds  can  take  six  or  eight  in  confinement,  and  a  dozen  when 
at  liberty.  These  numbers  will  have  to  be  varied  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year;  of  course  fewer  being  given  in 
severe  weather,  and  more  added,  as  it  gets  warmer  and  finer. 
The  best  test  is,  that  when  too  few  hens  are  given,  they  will 


lo  secure  Fertile  Eggs,  i6i 

be  found  stripped  nearly  bare  on  the  back,  and  wlien  this 
is  seen,  then  more  should  be  supplied  to  the  cock.  This 
must  be  done  even  if  hens  of  a  different  breed  can  only  be 
used,  as  too  few  hens  is  as  great  a  cause  of  unfertile  eggs,  as 
too  many,  and  the  strain  upon  them  is  also  very  liable  to 
cause  them  irreparable  injury.  As  the  bare  backs  can  be 
seen  by  the  most  casual  observer  in  a  poultry  yard,  there  can 
be  no  excuse  for  the  neglect  of  it. 

As  a  rule,  eggs  may  be  depended  upon  as  fertile  within  a 
week  of  the  birds  being  mated  together  ;  but,  we  make  it  a 
rule,  never  to  use  the  first  two  or  three  eggs  produced  by  each 
hen  after  she  is  so  mated,  especially,  if  she  has  been  running 
about  in  the  open  yard,  or  been  mated  witli  other  cocks. 
Those  who  breed  birds  for  exhibition,  are  most  careful  not  to 
allow  any  cock  to  have  access  to  the  hens,  except  the  one 
mated  with  them,  during  the  breeding  season.  The  reason 
adduced  for  this  is,  that  the  effects  of  such  a  cross  may  be 
noticed  in  the  chickens,  even  though  a  considerable  time  has 
elapsed,  between  the  alliance  and  the  laying  of  the  eggs. 
Whether  this  is  so  or  not,  it  is  quite  unnecessary  for  us  to 
inquire  here,  as  it  does  not  sufiiciently  concern  those  who 
breed  only  for  commercial  purposes,  but,  of  course,  it  is  wise  to 
prevent  mixing  up  in  this  way  unnecessarily.  In  any  case, 
we  should  not  advise  the  using  of  the  first  two  or  three  eggs, 
as  they  are  almost  certain  to  be  either  infertile,  or  to  show 
signs  of  previous  mating,  neither  of  which  is  desirable. 

The  feeding  of  breeding  stock,  is  a  point  on  which  a  mis- 
take is  made  by  too  many  poultry  keepers.  Fowls  will  not 
lay  if  they  are  fed  too  well,  and  on  this  account,  great  care 
must  be  exercised  in  what  is  given  to  them,  both  as  to  quan- 
tity and  quality.  All  fattening  foods  must  be  avoided,  as 
these  cause  internal  fat,  which  acts  upon  the  iigg  organs,  and 
prevents,  instead  of  helping,  the  object  in  view.  We  believe 
in  good  food,  that  is,  food  ol  a  sound  nature,  and  this  will 

M 


1 62  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

be  found  most  satisfactory  in  the  end.  Barley,  wheat,  buck- 
wheat, oats,  and  dari,  both  whole  and  ground,  are  all  first- 
rate  foods,  and  may  be  relied  upon  as  best  for  the  purpose. 
If  the  birds  are  in  runs,  where  insect  life  cannot  be  got  very 
freely,  then  a  very  little  meat  may  be  given  to  them,  but  not 
otherwise.  And  on  wet  or  cold  mornings,  a  little  stimulating 
powder  is  very  helpful,  but  upon  no  account  should  it  be  used 
when  the  weather  is  w^arm  and  dry.  Green  food  is  also  very 
essential,  and  a  barrow  load  of  cabbages  will  be  greatly  re- 
lished, as  well  as  be  highly  beneficial,  even  when  the  grass  run 
is  an  extensive  one.  For  a  system  of  feeding  we  prefer  the 
following : — First,  a  meal  of  soft  food,  mixed  with  boiling 
w^ater,  early  in  the  morning,  the  sooner  after  the  birds  leave 
their  roosts  the  better;  second,  a  handful  of  grain  in  the 
middle  of  the  day  ;  and,  last,  a  good  feed  of  grain  about  an 
hour  before  they  go  to  roost  at  night. 

A  question  is  sometimes  asked.  How  much  food  should 
be  given  to  each  fowl  every  day  ?  This  it  is  impossible  to 
answer,  by  stating  any  quantity,  as  the  appetites  of  the  birds 
vary  with  the  season  of  the  year,  and  with  the  different 
kinds  of  fowls,  some  being  much  greater  eaters  than  others. 
The  only  safe  rule  is  to  either  throw  the  food  down  in  hand- 
fuls,  or  put  it  in  dishes  or  troughs,  and  to  cease  giving,  or 
remove  it,  as  soon  as  the  birds  cease  to  eat  eagerly.  There 
is  just  one  exception  to  this  rule,  and  it  is  one  that  needs  to 
be  very  especially  mentioned  here,  for  there  are  some  cocks 
of  a  very  gallant  nature,  which  will  not  touch  any  food,  until 
all  their  hens  have  been  served.  They  call  their  mates  to  it, 
and  see  that  they  get  enough,  but  do  not  attempt  to  touch 
it  themselves.  Therefore,  unless  the  attendant  is  very 
observant,  the  bird  will  get  very  little  to  eat — certainly  not 
enough,  and  will  go  down  in  condition,  infertile  eggs  being 
one  of  the  results.  Where  this  is  observed,  either  a  little 
more  food  must  be  given  to  the  cock  or  he  must  be  fed  by 


To  secure  Hardy  Chickens.  163 

himself.  Either  plan  will  answer  the  purpose  so  long  as  it 
is  seen  to.  We  need  only  just  mention  that  material  will 
be  needed  for  the  formation  of  the  shells,  and  this  may  be 
old  mortar,  broken  oyster  shells,  lime  and  gravel,  the  last 
being  specially  useful,  in  assisting  the  birds  to  digest  their 
food,  and  should  for  that  reason  always  be  supplied. 

The  chief  object  should  be,  to  keep  the  breeding  stock  in 
the  best  of  health  and  condition,  as  this  is  most  conducive 
to  the  production  of  strong  and  hardy  chickens.  It  can 
only  be  secured  by  selecting  good  birds,  in  the  way  indicated 
by  us,  by  giving  the  birds  as  much  room  as  possible,  by 
housing  them  well,  and  by  feeding  them  in  a  systematic  and 
sensible  manner.  Neglect  any  of  these  points,  and  tha 
result  will  show  itself  in  the  progeny,  because  in  this,  as  in  all 
other  similar  operations,  effects  follow  causes  remorselessly. 
We  do  not  say  that  the  effect  is  always  immediate,  or  even 
apparent  at  once,  but  it  is  nevertheless  there,  and  sooner  or 
later  will  declare  itself. 


M  2 


164  Profitable  Pottltiy  Keeping, 


CHAPTER  XV. 


HATCHING. 


Shall  Hens  set  tbemselves  ? — Selection  of  Place  for  Sitting— Hatching  Boxes^— 
Making  the  Nests — Food  and  Water — Setting  the  Hen — Feeding — Airing 
the  Eggs — Kind  of  Food  for  Hens — Dust  Bath — Testing  the  Eggs— Period 
of  Incubation — Managem<'nt  during  Hatching — Helping  the  Chicks. 

The  time  ^vhen  hens  should  be  set,  will  depend  very  largely 
upon  tlie  purpose  for  which  the  chickens  aro  required,  and 
the  breeds  of  poultry  kept.  If  eggs  are  the  object  in  view, 
and  any  of  the  breeds  we  have  named  as  most  suitable  in 
such  a  case  as  this  are  selected,  then  March  and  April  are 
the  best  months  ;  but,  if  heavier  breeds,  such  as  Brahmas  or 
Langshans  are  chosen,  then  no  chickens  should  be  hatched 
after  the  first  week  in  April,  or,  at  any  rate,  as  few  as  possible. 
Birds  intended  for  table  purposes,  whether  chickens  or  duck- 
lings, may  be  hatched  at  any  time,  but  it  is  best  to  do  so 
as  early  as  possible,  even  in  autumn.  Those  hatched  at 
other  times,  mature,  ard  are  placed  on  the  market,  when  it  is 
overstocked,  and,  consequently,  they  do  not  reahse  so  paying 
a  price.  The  rapidly  m.aturing  fowls  may  be  hatched  much 
later  than  those  which  are  more  deliberate  in  this  respect, 
and  these  are  the  questions  which  must  decide  the  time  of 
hatching,  for,  with  layers,  the  object  is  to  have  them  laying 
before  the  winter  sets  in,  and,  with  table  birds,  it  is  to  get  them 
to  market  when  prices  are  at  their  highest  point.  Those 
who  breed  fowls  for  exhibition,  generally  get  their  birds  out 


Hatching,  165 

as  early  in  the  year  as  possible,  to  have  them  matured 
before  the  autumn  and  winter  shows,  except  in  the  case  of 
Bantams,  in  which,  small  size  being  a  desideratum,  they 
are  bred  late,  so  as  to  prevent  undue  growth.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen,  that  there  is  a  way  provided  for  all  denominations 
of  poultry  keepers. 

Among  old-fashioned  henwives  there  is  a  very  general 
impression,  that  it  is  a  much  better  plan  to  let  a  hen  set 
herself,  than  to  provide  a  nest  for  her.  This  is  doubtless 
true  to  a  certain  extent,  with  some  breeds,  as  they  are  thus 
content,  and,  being  under  perfectly  natural  conditions,  often 
produce  larger  broods  than  they  otherwise  might.  But,  where 
there  is  any  attempt  at  careful  breeding,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  adopt  such  a  system,  unless  the  amount  of  ground  at 
disposal  is  very  large  indeed,  and  the  birds  are  at  perfect 
liberty.  In  addition  to  the  need  for  space,  there  are  other 
drawbacks  to  a  plan  of  this  kind.  In  the  first  place  the 
owner  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  birds — he  must  wait  their  con- 
venience, and  it  may  be  lose  the  best  weeks  of  the  year. 
Time  is  everything,  and  if  none  of  his  own  hens  are  broody, 
he  should  seek  for  others  that  are,  if  he  wishes  to  succeed. 
Then,  in  the  second  place,  no  other  eggs  than  the  ones  laid 
by  each  hen  herself  can  be  used  for  hatching,  which  is,  of 
course,  simply  out  of  the  question  ;  and  in  the  third  place,  if 
a  hen  elects  to  set  herself  in  the  laying  house,  constant 
fighting  will  be  the  result,  probably  ending  in  the  spoliation 
of  the  whole  nest.  Some  hens  resist  being  removed,  and  . 
refuse  to  sit  anywhere  but  in  the  places  they  select ;  but,  as 
a  rule,  they  are  much  more  reasonable  than  this.  On  a  large 
farm  where  hatching  is  to  be  extensively  adopted,  it  is 
better  to  have  a  docile  sitting  breed,  and  for  this  we  know 
of  none  better  than  Brahma-dorkings,  as  they  will  allow 
themselves  to  be  handled,  are  large,  without  being  clumsy, 
cover  a  goodly  number  of  eggs,  malie  excellent  sitters  and 


1 66  P7'ofitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

mothers,  and  are  very  good  all-round  fowls.  Often,  however, 
other  hens  have  to  he  obtained,  and,  when  sitters  are  scarce, 
they  must  be  taken.  The  plan  we  are  about  to  suggest  will 
generally  be  found  to  answer  for  all,  except,  it  may  be,  very 
wild  ones. 

"Where  it  is  only  necessary  to  hatch  one  or  two  settings 
each  year,  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  setting  the  hens,  as 
they  can  be  put  separately  in  outhouses,  empty  runs,  or  any 
other  places  of  that  kind,  but,  where  a  number  of  hens  have 
to  be  kept  at  work  at  one  time,  then  some  other  system  must 
be  adopted.  If  the  farm  or  ground  space  available  is  very 
large,  the  hens  may  be  distributed  in  various  parts,  under- 
charge of  the  cottagers,  but,  as  a  rule,  we  prefer  to  keep  them 
near  home,  where  they  can  be  looked  after  by  one  person, 
whose  sole  care  they  will  be.  And,  for  this  purpose,  it  is  best 
to  devote  a  good,  large,  comfortable  room,  such  as  an  empty 
stable,  an  unused  coach-house,  a  loft  above  a  stable,  a  cool 
conservatory,  or,  even  a  large  empty  room  in  the  house  itself, 
and,  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  the  chicken-house, 
if  one  has  been  made,  may  also  be  used.  But,  when  the 
chickens  begin  to  appear,  it  will  be  much  better  to  put  the 
sitting  hens  elsewhere,. as  they  are  very  apt  to  get  fidgety  and 
restless,  hearing  the  "  cluck,  cluck  "  of  the  mothers  and  the 
*'peep,  peep"  of  the  chickens. 

Whatever  is  the  place  selected,  it  should  be  warm,  com- 
fortable, well  ventilated,  free  from  draughts,  and  as  even  in 
temperature  as  possible,  but,  except  in  very  severe  weather, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  a  fire  in  it,  for,  if  well  built,  it  will 
be  warm  enough,  though  if  adjoining  a  stable  or  green-house 
it  will  be  all  the  better.  In  very  cold  weather  some  arti- 
ficial warmth  is  necessary,  or  the  hens  will  be  most  likely  to 
desert  their  nests.  The  room  selected  need  not  be  well 
lighted,  and,  in  fact,  a  somewhat  dim  place  is  the  best,  for 
the  birds  sit  quieter  in  the  dark.     The  same  room  can  be 


The  Hatching  Box. 


167 


used  as  a  fattening  place  later  on  in  the  year,  if  not  in  a 
dwelling-house,  and,  if  dark,  the  inmates  will  thrive  more 
rapidly  than  in  light,  hut  hatching  and  fattening  must  not 
be  carried  on  at  the  same  time.  An  earthen  floor  is  best, 
though  when  it  is  made  of  brick,  cement  or  wood,  the  same 
result  can  be  arrived  at  by  laying  down  ashes  or  fine  earth, 
about  a  foot  thick,  over  the  same.  Upon  this,  all  round  the 
room,  hatching  boxes  may  be  placed,  if  the  first  plan  we  are 
about  to  describe  be  adopted. 

The  kind  of  nest  box  we  prefer,  having  used  it  for  many 
years,  is  a  plain  deal  box,  about  eighteen  inches  in  height. 


Fig.  7.— -Jlatcliing  Box. 

and  fifteen  inches  square,  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  7, 
which  should  be  kept  by  all  dealers  in  poultry  supplies.  It 
is  made  without  bottom,  or  only  with  wire  netting  to  keep 
out  rats,  but  with  a  solid  top ;  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
front  forms  a  door,  which  may  open  either  upwards  or  down- 
wards, the  latter  preferred,  and,  if  hinged  and  provided  with 
a  simple  catch,  is  easily  opened  and  closed,  and,  when  closed, 
the  inmate  is  perfectly  secure,  and  cannot  be  molested. 
■Holes  for  ventilation  are  bored  in  the  top  and  the  sides,  and 
a  coat  of  whitewash  inside  completes  the  whole.  We  have 
often  made  half-a-dozen  of  these  boxes  in  a  single  afternoon, 
at  a  small  cost,  but  they  can  also  be  bought  at  reasonable 


1 68  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

prices.  We  prefer  these  to  any  others,  especially  to  those  made 
in  sets,  as  each  one  can  be  removed  at  any  time  for  cleaning 
purposes,  and,  consequently,  vermin  are  not  harboured.  And 
as  a  score  boxes  can  be  kept  in  one  room  without  difiSculty, 
they  answer  all  the  purposes  required.  We  do  not  approve  of 
hatching  nests  in  tiers,  not  only  because  they  harbour  insects, 
but,  also,  because  the  air  cannot  circulate  about  the  nests,  as 
it  can  in  the  boxes  we  have  described.  This  is  most  im- 
portant, and  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  non- success  so 
often  found  where  the  nest  boxes  are  made  in  sets. 

Other  plans  can  be  adopted  for  hatching  boxes.  For 
instance,  we  some  time  ago  visited  a  very  large  poultry  yard 
and  were  surprised  to  see  in  use,  in  the  hatching  houses, 
what  to  us  was  a  new  plan,  but  which  at  first  did  not  appear 
to  be  a  good  one.  The  hatching  boxes  were  suspended  to 
the  wall,  about  two  feet  above  the  ground,  and  were  made  so 
that  the  hens  could  be  securely  shut  in.  The  bottoms  of 
these  boxes  were  pieces  of  wire  netting  stretched  upon  frames, 
and  removable,  so  that  the  inside  could  be  properly  cleaned 
out.  The  nests  were  simply  straw — no  earth  or  grass  sod, 
or  anything,  but  straw — and  the  owner  informed  us  that  dur- 
ing the  previous  season,  the  success  in  these  nests  was  greater 
than  in  any  other.  His  idea  w^as  taken  from  the  nests 
of  wild  birds,  and  he  believed  that  free  circulation  of  air,  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  for  successful  hatching.  This 
bears  out  what  we  have  already  said  ;  and  whilst  we  cannot 
now  go  so  far  as  to  recommend  this  system  to  all  our  readers, 
yet  there  is  undoubtedly  something  in  it.  Of  course,  there 
are  many  who  succeed  well  in  hatching,  with  only  plain  boxes, 
or  even  a  couple  of  bricks  ;  but,  where  a  number  of  hens  are 
to  be  set,  this  plan  necessitates  a  separate  place  for  every  one, 
which  is  not  at  all  times  possible. 

As  already  stated,  where  the  hatching  boxes  recommended 
by  us  are  used,  the  floor  should  be  covered  with  fine  soil,  or 


Arrange^nent  of  Hatching  Boxes,  169 

ashes,  about  a  foot  thick,  and  upon  this  the  boxes  must  be 
placed.  The  object  is  to  keep  the  underside  of  the  eggs 
cool,  and  the  atmosphere  in  the  nest  moist.  A  hen,  when 
allowed  to  choose  her  own  nest,  general^  selects  a  cool,  damp 
spot,  so  that  we  are  only  following  nature  in  doing  this  ;  and, 
as  the  boxes  are  without  bottoms,  the  moisture  in  the  earth 
or  ashes  naturally  affects  the  nest  itself.  The  best  plan  is 
to  put  these  boxes  all  around  the  room,  with  their  backs  to 
the  walls,  and  a  space  of  a  foot  between  each.  Thus,  in  a 
room  fifteen  feet  square,  between  thirty  and  forty  nests  can 
be  accommodated.  As  each  hen  has  to  be  allowed  out  to  feed 
separately,  it  is  sometimes  thought  advisable  not  to  put  so 
many  in  one  room,  but  to  divide  them,  so  that  two  or  more 
may  be  off  feeding  at  one  time.  We  have  also  seen  a  capital 
plan  adopted  in  some  places,  namely,  having  half-a-dozen 
large  roomy  pens  at  one  end  of  the  room,  in  each  of  which 
food  and  water  ist  provided,  and  plenty  of  fine  dry  ashes  for 
a  dust  bath.  By  such  an  arrangement  as  this,  half-a-dozen 
hens  can  be  fed  at  one  time,  but,  of  course,  they  will  have 
to  be  lifted  off  the  nests,  put  into  the  pens,  and  returned 
to  the  nests  again,  when  they  have  been  properly  fed.  The 
saving  of  time  by  so  doing  is  very  great,  for,  allowing  fifteen 
minutes  to  each  bird,  it  would  take  six  hours  to  feed  twenty- 
four,  whereas,  in  the  way  we  have  described,  one  hour  would 
be  sufficient.  If  the  attendant  has  little  or  nothing  else  to 
do,  then  it  is,  perhaps,  not  worth  the  extra  cost ;  but  where 
there  is  plenty  of  other  work  to  do,  it  will  be  found  a  very 
economical  method. 

After  the  box  is  in  position,  a  good  shovelful  of  fine  soil  or 
ashes  should  be  placed  inside,  and  then  hollowed  out  with 
the  hand  like  a  saucer,  so  as  to  make  the  nest  a  proper  shape. 
Care  is  necessary,  to  see  that  the  corners  are  filled  up,  or  the 
eggs  will  be  very  liable  to  roll  away  from  under  the  hen,  the 
result  of  which  will  be    chilling    and  addling.     Above  the 


170  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

earth,  some  soft  straw  must  be  laid,  oaten  preferred,  or,  if 
wheaten  is  used,  it  should  be  well  beaten  or  rubbed  in  the 
hands,  and  then  the  nest  is  ready  for  the  eggs,  and  for  the 
ten. 

Most  of  our  readers  will  be  sufficiently  learned  in  poultry 
matters,  as  to  be  able  to  tell  when  a  hen  is  *' broody,"  or 
"  clucking,*'  as  it  is  often  called.  Any  one  who  has  lived  in 
the  country  will  have  no  difficulty  in  the  matter,  but  it  may 
be,  that  a  few  denizens  of  the  towns  may  not  have  this 
knowledge.  The  best  sign  is  that  the  hen  sits  closely  on  her 
nest,  and  makes  a  sound  not  unlike  *'  cluck,  cluck."  If 
taken  off,  she  gets  back  again  as  fast  as  possible,  resenting 
the  interference  more  or  less,  according  to  her  temperament. 
The  best  plan  of  putting  a  hen  off  being  broody  is  to  move 
her  about ;  and,  therefore,  when  she  is  wanted  as  a  sitter,  she 
must  not  be  disturbed  too  soon,  but  left  alone  until  the  broody 
fever  is  fully  developed.  ♦ 

In  the  case  of  a  hen,  which  has  been  proved  in  previous 
years  to  be  a  really  good  mother,  then  the  eggs  may  be 
placed  in  a  hatching  box,  and  she  can  get  to  work  at  once  ; 
but  with  a  young  or  unknown  hen  our  plan  has  been  to  put  a 
few  dummy  eggs — i.  ^.,  either  chalk  or  spoiled  eggs — into  the 
nest,  in  order  to  test  her,  before  the  eggs  to  be  hatched  are 
given.  By  this  means  very  many  valuable  eggs  may  be  saved, 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost  through  the  removal  having 
upset  the  hen.  The  best  time  to  set  a  hen  is  at  night,  as 
then  she  is  more  likely  to  settle  down  to  her  work,  not  having 
seen  the  surroundings.  The  eggs  should  be  put  into  the 
nest,  with  some  food  and  w^ater  near,  and,  if  the  rays  from  a 
lantern  or  candle  be  thrown  upon  the  eggs  so  that  the  hen 
can  see  them,  the  food,  and  very  little  else,  she  will  gene- 
rally go  on  of  her  own  accord,  as  soon  as  she  has  fed  herself. 
Should  she  be  reluctant  to  do  so,  gentle  force  may  be  used, 
and  the  hen  placed  on  to  the  nest,  and  shut  therein.      As  a 


Management  of  Sitting  Hens.  171 

rule,  if  left  undisturbed  for  twenty-four  hours,  a  hen  so  treated 
will  be  found  sitting  closely,  and  all  will  go  on  well  after- 
wards. The  real  eggs  can  then  be  substituted  for  the  others  ; 
but,  if  she  is  at  all  unsettled,  this  must  not  be  done  for 
a  day  or  two  longer. 

As  already  indicated  by  us,  each  hen  must  be  allowed  off 
the  nest  for  feeding  purposes  once  every  day,  and  thus,  in  a 
room  where  there  are  a  large  number  of  sitters,  it  should  be 
arranged  that  this  shall  take  place  in  rotation.  The  period 
may  be  varied  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  place  where  the  hens  are  sitting.  Hens 
which  find  their  own  nests  are  accustomed  to  leave  them  an 
hour  at  a  time  ;  but,  it  must  be  remembered,  that,  as  a  rule, 
they  never  sit  except  in  moderately  warm  weather,  such  as  can 
generally  be  found  in  the  late  spring.  It  will  not  do,  there- 
fore, to  adopt  the  same  plan  at  all  seasons.  Eggs  will  stand 
a  very  great  deal,  and  we  have  known  them  hatch,  even  after 
being  stone  cold  for  twelve  hours;  but  this  fact  must  not  be 
taken  as  a  warrant  for  carelessness.  As  a  general  rule,  it 
may  be  accepted  that  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  is  long  enough, 
early  in  the  year  ;  but,  later  on,  or,  if  in  a  warm  place,  then 
half-an-hour  will  do  no  harm.  If  the  temperature  is  very 
low,  the  first-named  period  would  be  sufficient  to  kill  the 
eggs ;  and,  when  this  is  the  case,  something  must  be  done 
when  the  hen  is  off,  either  by  closing  the  box  or  covering  the 
eggs,  to  prevent  their  getting  chilled.  If  the  nest  is  made 
in  a  proper  place,  however,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  this, 
and  the  periods  given  by  us  may  be  taken  as  a  rule.  The 
leaving  of  the  nest  by  the  hen  is  necessary,  not  only  for  her 
sake,  but  that  the  eggs  may  be  cooled,  without  which  they 
will  not  hatch.  It  is  supposed  that  the  cooler  air  is  required 
to  expand  the  lungs  of  the  embyro  chick,  and  that  fresh 
vigour  is  thus  drawn  through  the  pores  of  the  shell.  At  any 
rate,  whatever  may  be  the  reason,  it  is  no  doubt  a  fact  that 


172  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

too  close  a  sitter  generally  spoils  lier  nest,  and  fails  to  bring 
out  any.  chicks.  Upon  this  account,  therefore,  if  a  hen 
shows  any  reluctance  to  come  off,  she  must  be  lifted  off.  To 
do  this  properly,  care  is  necessary,  and  the  hands  must  be 
slid  below  the  wings,  so  as  to  prevent  any  eggs  that  might 
happen  to  be  tucked  under  them,  falling  down  when  the  hen 
is  lifted,  and  breaking  the  others  in  the  nest.  She  must 
then  be  lifted  up  by  the  wings  ;  and,  if  she  makes  any  attempt 
to  run  back  without  feeding,  the  door  of  the  hatching  box 
should  be  closed  until  the  time  named  has  expired. 

The  food  given  to  a  sitting  hen  must  always  consist  of 
hard  grain,  as  corn,  wheat  or  barley,  and  never  of  soft  food. 
The  latter  causes  looseness  of  the  bowels,  and  the  poor  hen, 
unable  or  unwilling  to  leave  her  nest,  fouls  it.  If  this  should 
happen,  or,  from  any  cause  an  ^gg  gets  broken,  the  eggs 
remaining,  must  be  well  washed,  and  the  nest  re-made.  This 
is  best  done  by  having  a  pail  half  full  of  warm  water,  just  hot 
enough  so  that  the  hand  can  bear  it.  The  eggs  should  be 
placed  in  this,  and  properly  cleaned  with  a  sponge  ;  and  the 
legs  and  thighs  of  the  bird  must  also  be  washed,  to  prevent 
the  eggs  sticking  thereto,  and,  perhaps,  falling  and  breaking, 
when  the  hen  gets  out.  A  dust  bath  will  be  needed  also, 
say,  a  box  half  filled  with  dry  ashes  or  earth,  with  a  sprink- 
ling of  carbolic  powder  in  it.  This  will  help  to  keep  down 
lice,  which  are  not  only  troublesome  to  the  hens,  but  danger- 
ous to  the  chicks,  causing  that  most  dreaded  of  all  chicken 
diseases,  the  gapes. 

Considerable  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  the  testing  of  eggs. 
This  is  done  to  prove  their  fertility,  during  the  process  of  incu- 
bation. Some  there  are  who  advocate  a  ''  let  alone  "  policy ;  but 
we  do  not,  as  we  firmly  believe  in  the  testing,  and  always  do  it. 
If  carefully  done  no  harm  can  ensue ;  and,  if  unfertile  eggs  are 
present,  as  they  very  often  are,  especially  early  in  the  season, 
they  can  be  removed,  and  thus  six  or  eight  hens  made  to  do 


Testing  Eggs.  173 

fclie  work  of  a  dozen  under  the  old  system.  Whether  hens 
or  incubators  are  used,  all  eggs  ought  to  be  tested  on  the 
seventh  day,  and,  in  order  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  this, 
two  or  more  hens  should  be  set  at  the  same  time,  so  that,  if  a 
number  are  barren,  one  of  the  sitters  can  have  her  eggs 
given  to  the  others,  and  a  fresh  nest  made  for  her  instead. 
Eggs  may  be  tested  in  various  ways.  The  original  method 
was  to  grasp  the  ^gg  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
left  hand,  using  the  other  fingers,  and  the  other  hand,  also,  to 
shade  off  the  light  from  the  eyes.  Many  hundreds  we  have 
done  in  this  way ;  but  now  Qgg  testers  are  sold  at  about  a 
quarter  each,  which  are  more  certain,  at  any  rate  to  those 
who  have  not  tried  the  testing  before.  If  there  is  only  one 
window  in  the  room,  place  the  egg  in  the  tester  between  the 
light  and  the  eye,  when  the  egg  will  appear  cloudy  or  clear, 
as  it  is  fertile  or  unfertile.  At  seven  days,  a  "  live  "  egg  will 
have  a  black  spot  in  the  centre,  gradually  shading  off  to  the 
edges,  where  it  is  much  clearer,  whilst  an  unfertile  Qgg 
remains  clear  all  the  time.  When  working  an  incubator,  we 
can  tell  fertile  eggs  thirty -six  hours  after  they  are  put  into 
the  machine,  but  this  requires  considerable  experience,  and 
it  is  not  wise  to  disturb  a  hen  so  early  as  the  time  named. 
In  testing,  perhaps  the  safest  way,  is  to  examine  the  eggs  at 
night,  by  a  candle,  a  lamp,  or  a  gas  jet,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  they  are  kept  at  least  six  inches  from  the  flame,  or 
the  heat  will  kill  the  embryo.  All  eggs  found  unfertile  can 
be  removed,  and  will  be  perfectly  good  for  cooking  purposes, 
or  may  be  used  for  feeding  chickens. 

After  this  examination,  nothing  more  need  be  done  until 
the  nineteenth  day,  except  to  see  every  day  when  the  hen 
is  off  for  feeding  that  the  nest  is  all  right,  and,  in  dr^ 
weather,  or,  if  upon  a  boarded  floor,  about  a  pint  or  a  quart 
of  hot  water  should  be  poured  round  the  outside  of  the  box> 
SO  as  to  keep  the  earth  in  the  box  damp,  and  thus  provide 


174  Profitable  Poiiltiy  Keeping. 

the  necessary  moisture.  This  is  a  most  important,  but  often 
neglected,  precaution.  On  the  nineteenth  day,  a  further 
examination  will  be  advisable,  but  this  time  by  water.  A 
pail,  about  three-parts  full  of  water  heated  up  to  103  degs., 
which  is  just  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  comfortably  bear  it, 
must  be  at  hand;  and  in  this  all  the  eggs  placed.  The 
dead,  or  addled  ones  will  generally  sink  to  the  bottom,  whilst 
those  that  contain  strong  chicks  will  float  in  the  water,  and, 
in  a  minute  or  two,  begin  to  bob  about  in  a  most  peculiar 
manner,  sometimes  almost  jumping  out  of  the  water.  This 
is  caused  by  the  efforts  of  the  chick  to  escape  from  its  prison, 
and  often  may  the  chicks  be  heard  to  chirp  in  the  shell. 
Only  such  eggs  as  have  moved,  and  they  need  to  be  carefully 
noted  to  prove  this,  as  the  motion  in  the  water  may  deceive 
as  to  whether  they  have  moved  or  not,  should  be  put  back 
in  the  nest,  as  the  others  are  certainly  dead.  We  have 
tested  hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  in  this  manner,  and  never 
found  but  two  or  three  in  which  we  had  been  mistaken. 
The  benefits  of  this  test  are  obvious.  The  water  softens 
the  shell,  making  the  escape  of  the  chick  easier,  and  the 
removal  of  the  dead  eggs  gives  the  birds  more  room  as  they 
come  out,  the  attention  of  the  hen  being  entirely  devoted  to 
them,  and  not  partially  taken  away  in  expectation  of  the 
appearance  of  others. 

As  is  generally  known,  twenty-one  days  is  the  period  of 
incubation  for  chickens,  but  for  one  or  two  of  the  more 
active  breeds,  a  day  less,  in  which  case  the  water  test  should 
be  applied  the  same  period  of  time  earlier.  If  the  eggs  are 
very  fresh  when  put  into  the  nest,  it  will  be  found,  when  the 
hen  is  off  on  the  day  after  they  have  been  tested,  that  many 
are  chipped,  or  even  the  chicks  out  of  the  shell,  and,  if  this 
latter  is  the  case,  the  Qg%  shells  must  then  be  removed,  and 
every  three  or  four  hours  afterwards,  the  nest  examined  foi 
the  same  purpose.    These  vacant  shells  have  a  very  dangerous 


Breaking  the  Shell.  175 

habit  of  fitting  themselves  on  to  the  other  eggs,  which 
simply  means,  that  the  chicks  in  the  latter  cannot  get  out. 
Unless  the  hatching  is  very  uneven,  we  do  not  advise  the 
removal  of  any  of  the  birds  from  under  the  hen,  but  some- 
times this  is  necessary,  when  they  should  be  placed  in  a 
basket  near  a  fire,  and  covered  up  with  a  piece  of  new  flannel. 
This  uneven  hatching  is  more  the  result  of  some  of  the  eggs 
not  being  fresh,  than  from  any  other  cause. 

Should  any  of  the  chicks  appear  to  be  unable  to  get  out  of 
the  shell,  they  may  be  aided,  but,  as  a  rule,  if  they  cannot 
get  out  themselves  they  are  generally  not  worth  the  trouble. 
We  have  found,  however,  that  the  use  of  the  water  on  the 
nineteenth  day,  almost  entirely  prevents  any  difficulty  in  this 
respect,  but,  if  it  is  thought  desirable  to  help  the  hatching, 
the  way  to  do  it  is  to  get  a  bowl  of  warm  water,  in  which  they 
are  placed,  taking  care  to  keep  the  chipped  portion  out  of  the 
water.  In  this  the  eggs  are  kept  for  a  couple  of  minutes, 
when  they  are  returned  to  the  nest.  Breaking  the  shell 
is  very  dangerous,  for  if  blood  is  drawn,  then  death  or 
deformity  ensues,  but  the  plan  we  have  here  recommended 
does  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and,  in 
the  others,  the  birds  would  probably  drag  out  a  miserable 
existence,  and  be  neither  of  use,  nor  give  pleasure  to  the 
owner.  A  little  patience  is  needed,  as  sometimes  hatching 
is  delayed,  and  we  should  not  give  up  eggs  that  had 
"  bobbed"  in  the  water,  for  two  or  three  days  after  the  time 
they  were  due  to  hatch.  If  two  or  more  hens  are  set  at 
once,  then  these  late  eggs  can  all  be  given  to  one,  and  the 
others  have  the  chicks. 


176  Projltable  Poultry  Keeping. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION. 

A  Practical  Success  — Past  Attempts  — Difficulties  — Later  Attempts  — The  Turning 
Point  — Rouillier's  Machine  —  Prejudice  Against  the  Il3'dro-Incubator  —  The 
Incubator  Trials— How  Superior  to  Previous  Machines— Drawback  to  Ilydro- 
Incubator  —  Voitellier's  Hydro  —  Owen's  Tabular  —  Arnold's  Ejrg  Oven— Self 
Heating  Incubators  —  Hearson's — New  Centennial  —  "Perfect  Hatcher"  — The 
Thermostatic— The  Novelty— Advice  to  Workers. 

It  is  not  at  all  necessary,  now-a-da3^s,  to  make  any  excuse 
for  introducing  the  subject  of  artificial  incubation  into  any 
work  upon  the  keeping  of  poultry,  for  such  a  method  of 
hatching  has  passed  out  of  the  theoretical  into  the  practical 
stage  ;  and,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  there  are  thousands 
of  machines  at  work  in  Great  Britain,  in  France,  and  in 
America,  as  well  as  very  large  numbers  used  for  ostrich  hatch- 
ing at  the  Cape.  It  is  no  longer  a  merely  theoretical  and 
expensive  hobby,  only  to  be  taken  up  by  those  who  have 
plenty  of  time  and  money  at  command,  but  has  become  an 
acknowledged  success,  neither  intricate  in  its  method  of 
working,  nor  expensive  in  the  first  cost  and  subsequent 
management.  But  this  has  only  been  reached  within  the 
last  few  years,  as  many  can  verify,  and  there  is  every  sign 
that  the  use  of  incubators  is  very  likely  to  last,  the  results 
already  attained  being  sufficient  to  justify  this  belief. 

In    theory,  there    has    never    been  any  difficulty  about 
artificial  incubation,  because,  so  far  as  can  bo  seen,  when 


A  rtijicial  Incubation,  177 

eggs  are  laid  by  the  hen  all  that  is  needed,  if  they  are  fertile, 
is  to  give  the  same  amount  of  heat,  air,  and  moisture  as  if 
brooded  by  the  mother,  and  the  chickens  must  come.  This 
has  not,  however,  been  found  so  very  easy  in  practice.  In 
the  first  place,  the  heat  must  be  kept  regular,  like  that  of 
the  hen ;  and,  in  order  to  obtain  this,  most  elaborate  and 
ingenious  machines  have  at  various  times  been  devised,  the 
object  being,  of  course,  to  regulate  the  supply  of  heat,  so 
that  the  temperature  to  which  the  eggs  are  subjected  might 
be  maintained  as  evenly  as  possible.  Many  of  these  worked 
splendidly,  so  long  as  the  mechanism  did  not  get  out  of 
order ;  but  this  mechanism  was  necessarily  so  intricate,  that 
very  little  upset  it,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  cost  was  so 
great  that  only  the  wealthy  could  afford  to  risk  so  much  money 
over  a  doubtful  experiment.  In  other  machines,  where  the 
regulatiDg  power  was  not  so  susceptible,  all  went  well  so  long 
as  the  outer  atmosphere  was  moderately  even,  but,  as  soon 
as  a  sudden  change  came,  the  calculations  were  upset, 
and  the  eggs  chilled  or  roasted.  A  hen's  body  is  always 
about  the  same  in  heat,  and  she  sits  closely  or  lightly,  in 
accordance  with  the  weather ;  but,  as  a  machine  can  never 
be  made  to  think,  and  cannot  be  endowed  with  instinct,  pre- 
parations are  necessary  to  meet  all  conditions,  and  these 
preparations,  in  many  instances,  meant  complexity  and  expen- 
siveness.  The  accounts  of  the  ^^g  ovens  of  Egypt,  China, 
and  Siam,  where  artificial  (tgg  hatching  has  existed  for 
centuries,  led  many  to  attempt  reaching  the  same  end  here, 
and  the  records  of  the  Patent  Office,  show  the  large  numbei 
of  attempts  made  to  find  success,  many  of  which  exhibited 
very  great  skill  and  scientific  knowledge.  It  was  forgotten, 
however,  that  what  was  possible  and  easy  in  the  countries 
we  have  named,  where  the  temperature  is  high  and  very  even, 
is  most  difficult  in  an  erratic  and  cold  climate.  Even  with 
natural  hatching,  the  difficulties  in  the  way,  are  greater  in 

N 


1 78  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

America  than  in  many  other  countries;  and,  wherever  a 
changeable  climate  is  found  there  are  great  difficulties  to 
contend,  with,  both  in  natural  and  artificial  incubation. 
This  is  even  exemplified  in  the  difference  between  the  soutli- 
ern  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  country,  for  in  the  former 
chickens  can,  as  a  rule,  be  hatched  some  three  or  six  weeks 
earlier  than  in  the  latter. 

As  we  have  just  stated,  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  solve  the  problem,  some  of  which  promised  to,  and  did, 
attain  a  measure  of  success.  A  generation  or  two  ago, 
Messrs.  Brindley,  Schroder  and  Cantello,  worked  hard  at 
the  question;  and,  in  later  years,  Messrs.  Vallee,  Boyle 
and  Penman  have  done  the  same ;  but,  it  is  with  no  idea  of 
discrediting  those  gentlemen,  that  we  say,  they  did  not  really 
help  to  arrive  at  the  true  solution.  Mr.  Boyle  spent  a  very 
great  deal  of  time,  and  several  hundreds  of  pounds,  in  his 
experiments,  and  his  machine  displayed  great  scientific  know- 
ledge and  skill.  It  was  fitted  with  the  best  regulator  w^e 
have  ever  seen,  which  was  so  delicate,  that  we  have  known 
it  maintain  the  temperature  for  weeks,  with  a  variation  of 
only  half  a  degree,  in  most  changeable  weather.  The  incubator 
of  Mr.  Penman  was  also  very  cleverly  devised,  and  worked 
well ;  but,  in  both  these  machines,  the  mechanism  made  them 
expensive,  and  the  many  fine  and  delicate  movements,  to 
regulate  the  supply  of  air,  moisture,  and  heat,  made  the 
working  of  them  difficult,  or,  at  any  rate,  too  difficult  for  the 
results.  Doubtless  the  makers,  and  a  few  otheis,  were  able 
to  work  them,  but  ordinary  folks  could  not ;  and,  although 
many  tried,  few  succeeded  in  their  endeavours.  And,  again, 
gas  or  oil  lamps  were  used  as  the  heating  power,  the  cost 
for  either  of  which  was  expensive  under  the  system  adopted, 
and,  not  only  so,  but  the  great  consumption  of  gas  or  oil, 
charged  the  air  with  impurities,  which  oft^n  killed  the  germ 
in  the  ^gg^  either  early  or  late  in  the  process.     And,  in 


Successful  Incubators.  179 

addition  to  this,  the  art  of  artificial  rearing  was  very  little 
understood,  so  that  even  when  the  birds  were  hatched,  they 
died  off  in  large  numbers  afterwards. 

The  numberless  failures — for  there  were  scores  who  made 
and  tried  artificial  incubators,  who  were  never  known  to  fame 
— gave  the  general  impression  that  there  must  be  something 
supplied  by  the  hen,  unknown  to  man,  but  which  is  necessary 
for  the  successful  hatching  of  the  eggs.  This  was  after- 
wards proved  to  be  erroneous,  and  that  the  failures  had 
been  the  result  of  a  false  system,  upon  which  they  had  all 
been  made.  The  Paris  Exhibition  of  1877  was  an  im- 
portant period,  so  far  as  this  question  was  concerned,  for,  at 
it,  there  were  shown  incubators  upon  an  altogether  new 
principle,  and  these  have  revolutionised  the  system,  turn- 
ing into  a  success  that  which  was  an  entire  failure  pre- 
viously. The  machine  we  novV  speak  of,  is  the  hydro- 
incubator,  invented  by  a  Frenchman  named  Rouillier,  and 
which,  in  its  arrangements  and  mode  of  working,  is  simplicity 
itself,  so  simple  that  we  wonder  no  one  ever  thought  of  it 
before.  The  main  idea  worked  upon  is,  that  a  large  body 
of  water,  embedded  in  non-conducting  material,  so  as  to 
prevent  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  will  retain  its  heat  for  a 
very  long  time.  These  incubators  have  very  large  tanks, 
holding  about  fourteen  gallons  of  water,  which  are  divided 
into  three  horizontal  compartments,  each  communicating  with 
the  others  by  means  of  a  few  small  holes.  This  tank  is 
placed  in  a  wooden  case,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides,  save 
the  bottom  (under  which  is  the  ^gg  drawer),  by  an  inch  or 
more  of  felt,  or  some  other  non-conducting  material,  tightly 
pressed  down.  When  this  tank  is  filled  with  hot  water,  it 
is  found  that  the  water  only  loses  from  two  to  five  degrees, 
every  twenty-four  hours,  according  to  the  temperature  of  the 
place  where  it  is  kept.  If  the  water  in  the  top  compartment 
only  be  drawn  off,  and  that  in  the  lower  ones  be  left  undis- 

N    2 


i8o  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

turbed,  the  former  being  again  filled  with  boiling  water,  the 
heat  from  this  will  gradually  affect  the  lower  body,  and  prevent 
its  going  dowm.  By  repeating  this  every  twelve  hours,  the 
heat  in  the  e^g  drawer  can  be  maintained  at  almost  any 
degree  of  temperature,  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  variation, 
and,  as  there  is  no  great  expense  in  the  making  of  such  a 
machine,  no  intricate  mechanism  to  get  out  of  order,  no  cost 
for  gas  or  oil,  or  combustion  of  these  latter  to  vitiate  the 
atmosphere,  the  advance  upon  the  old  system  is  very  great, 
and,  in  practice,  the  hydro-incubator  has  been  found  very 
simple  and  efficient,  so  that  now  there  are  large  numbers  in 
operation.  The  inventor  of  this  machine  has  stated  that,  in 
one  year  he  hatched  upwards  of  44,000  chicks  in  these 
machines.  In  the  district  of  France  where  he  lives,  the 
poultry  keepers  bring  their  eggs  to  him  to  be  hatched,  and  go 
three  weeks  afterwards  for  the  chicks,  one  in  three  of  the 
birds  thus  brought  out  being  paid  for  the  trouble  involved. 

Hydro-incubators,  on  their  introduction  to  our  breeders, 
had  to  contend  with  a  very  great  deal  of  prejudice  and  oppo- 
sition. They  were  altogether  against  all  preconceived  notions, 
and  apparently  were  more  for  playthings  than  actual  work. 
The  very  fact  of  having  to  supply  a  gallon  or  two  of  boiling 
water  twice  a  day  was  deemed  too  great  a  trouble  ;  but  a  few 
bolder  spirits  tried  the  machines,  found  them  succeed  very  well 
indeed,  and,  at  a  public  trial  held  in  1879,  the  hydro  came  off 
victorious,  which  was  sufficient  to  give  it  a  position  at  once. 
Many  defects  had  by  this  time  been  remedied,  so  as  to  make 
it  more  fitted  for  Great  Britain ;  and  the  rearers  sent  out  with  it 
were  found  to  be,  beyond  all  question,  first-rate  things.  Thus 
the  hydro  at  once  silenced  all  opponents,  and,  from  its  com- 
paratively low  price,  at  once  became  the  machine.  We  believe 
we  are  right  in  saying  that  of  its  opponents  in  the  trial  of 
1879,  only  one  machine  is  now  to  be  purchased,  the  others  no 
longer  being  made.     This  success  has  made  artificial  incuba- 


The  '' Hydro-Incubaiorr  i8i 

tion  a  fact,  and  thousands  of  chickens  are  hatched  every  year 
in  mcubators.  The  bearing  upon  the  question  of  poultry 
farming  is  very  great,  as  the  attention  given  to  a  machine  is 
not  more  than  is  needed  by  a  couple  of  hens,  whilst  it  will 
do  four  or  six  times  the  work,  and  with  greater  certainty. 
This  has,  undoubtedly,  had  much  to  do  with  the  recent  revival 
of  interest  in  poultry  keeping,  and  we,  therefore,  are  justified 
in  dealing  fully  with  the  question. 

As  might  naturally  be  expected,  the  hydro-incubator  was 
not  allowed  to  have  all  the  field  to  itself.  If  its  introduction 
had  not  done  any  other  good,  that  of  showing  where  the 
mistake  was  in  the  construction  of  previous  machines  was 
enough  to  earn  our  favour.  All  these  machines  had  been 
made  on  the  principle  of  having  a  small  tank  of  water  above 
the  eggs,  heated  by  a  continuously  burning  lamp,  or  gas  jet. 
In  some,  the  tank  was  partially  embedded,  but  in  others,  it 
was  entirely  exposed,  and  in  all  it  was  very  liable  to  external 
atmospheric  influences.  The  result  of  this  was,  that  every 
variation  of  the  temperature  affected  the  machine,  and,  during 
sudden  changes,  it  was  almost  impossible  for  any  regulator  to 
withstand  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  Only  one — 
Boyle's — did  actually  work  smoothly  in  this  way,  and  that 
was  doubtless  partly  due  to  the  fact,  that  its  tank  was  the  most 
protected  of  a]l.  This  constant  variation  in  the  temperature, 
could  not  but  be  hurtful  to  the  eggs.  But  there  was  another 
great  evil,  namely,  that  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  the  heat, 
consequent  upon  exposure,  necessitated  the  consumption  of  a 
comparatively  large  quantity  of  gas  or  oil,  with  vitiation  of  the 
atmosphere  already  spoken  of.  On  the  introduction  of  the 
hydro-incubator,  therefore,  it  was  at  once  seen  that,  with  a 
larger  body  of  water  in  the  tank,  and  the  tank  protected  from 
external  influences,  the  heat  in  the  machine  would  be  steadier, 
the  consumption  of  oil  or  gas  would  be  very  small,  and  the 
vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  reduced  to  a  minimum,  or  entirely 


1 82  Profitable  Poiiltiy  Keeping. 

prevented,  and  this  led  to  experiments,  which  have  resulted 
in  machines  with  continuous  burning  lamps,  but  without  any 
of  the  objectionable  features  in  the  incubators  of  the  past. 

The  incubators  now  upon  the  market,  both  in  England 
and  America,  are  numerous,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade 
in  them.  It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  do  more  than  refer 
to  their  leading  characteristics,  and  then  any  of  our  readers, 
who  may  be  inclined  to  invest  in  a  machine,  can  form 
their  own  opinions  as  to  the  one  most  suited  to  them  ; 
not  only  so,  but,  as  each  maker  issues  a  pamphlet  or  circular 
relating  to  his  own  machine,  very  full  information  can  be 
got  out  of  these. 

We  have  seen  that  the  great  improvement  which  the  hj^dro- 
incubators  exhibit  over  the  older  ones,  is  in  the  larger  body 
of  water,  as  this  makes  the  working  of  the  machine  a  great 
deal  easier,  and  maintains  the  temperature  much  steadier, 
than  in  the  old  machines,  where  the  bulk  of  water  was  only 
one-sixth  or  one-eighth  as  great.  The  chief  drawback  to  the 
*'  hydro,''  is  the  trouble  iLvolved  in  the  partial  emptying  and 
refilling  of  the  tank  twice  a  day.  In  places  where  there  is 
plenty  of  hot  water  at  command,  or,  in  a  large  room  specially 
fitted  up  for  the  purpose  with  hot-water  pipes,  this  is  of  small 
moment  ;  but,  with  ordinary  folks,  it  means  a  great  deal  of 
labour  and  trouble.  One  plan  adopted  is  to  have  a  large  tin 
boiler,  holding  four  gallons  of  water,  standing  upon  a  gas 
stove  on  the  top  of  the  incubator,  in  which  the  water  is  boiled 
twice  a  day,  and  the  water  run  into  the  tank  direct.  Oil 
stoves  have  been  introduced  for  the  same  purpose,  where  gas 
is  not  available  ;  but,  about  two  years  ago,  a  modification 
was  introduced  in  the  shape  of  small  heating  boilers,  affixed, 
by  means  of  a  couple  of  pipes,  to  the  side  of  the  machine  as 
is  shown  in  fig.  (8),  and  so  constructed,  that  the  water  in  the 
tank  can  be  re-heated  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  without  the  trouble 
of  emptying  and  refilling.   This  is  done  by  the  simple  process 


The  Hydro-Incubator. 


183 


of  having  a  lamp  or  gas  jet  under  the  boiler,  and,  by  the 
natural  circulation  of  water,  that  in  the  upper  compartment 
of  the  tank  gradually  passing  through  the  boiler  and  thus 
being  re-heated. 

By  the  use  of  this  boiler  twice  a  day  for  about  an 
hour  each  time,  the  machine  can  be  worked ;  and,  though 
this  system  requires  care,  yet  with  that  care  it  is  both  simple 
and  easy.     The  makers  of  the  hydro-incubator  are  Messrs. 


Fig.  8. — Christy's  Hydro-Incuhator,  with  Circulating  Boiler. 


Thos.  ChrisLy  and  Co.,  of  Fenchurch  Street,  London,  who 
have  by  their  enterprise  done  a  very  great  deal  to  solve  the 
problem  of  artificial  incubation  and  rearing,  and  their 
machines  are  now  well  known  all  over  the  world.  In  a  place 
where  hot  water  is  not  to  be  obtained  easily,  and  in  sufficient 
quantity,  we  know  of  no  better  machine  than  theirs,  and  we 
should  in  such  a  place  strongly  recommend  it,  as  there  is  no 
danger  of  fire,  no  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere,  and  there  are 
no  regulators  to  get  out  of  order. 


1 84  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

The  other  macliines  made  on  this  hot- water  pnnciple  are, 
first,  that  of  M.  Yoitellier,  of  Nantes,  in  France.  This  is 
very  similar  to  the  Christy  machine,  except  that  it  has  the 
^gg  drawer  rather  differently  situated.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
machines,  and  we  have  heard  very  favourable  accounts  of  it, 
both  in  this  country  and  in  France.  Secondly,  there  are  the 
tubular  incubators  made  by  Mr.  John  Owen,  of  the  Minories, 
London,  which  are  very  similar  to  the  Christy,  having  a  boiler 
at  the  side.  In  this  case,  the  water  in  the  tank  is  not  reheated 
by  flowing  through  the  boiler,  but,  connected  with  the  boiler 
are  pipes  through  which  the  heated  water  flows,  and  these 
heat  the  water  in  the  tank.  And,  thirdly,  there  is  the  "  Egg 
Oven,"  a  machine  invented  by  Miss  May  Arnold,  of  Acton. 
This  is  almost  conical  in  shape,  and  the  tank  above  the  eggs 
forms  an  archway.  The  body  of  water  held  in  it  is  very 
large,  so  that  the  quantity  to  be  supplied,  in  order  to  keep  up 
the  heat,  is  very  small  indeed.  Capital  arrangements  are  made 
for  ventilation,  cooling,  and  moisture  ;  and,  though  we  have 
not  had  an  opportunity  of  testing  it  in  actual  practice,  as  it 
is  of  but  recent  introduction,  we  have  great  faith  in  it,  as  it 
appears  to  be  made  upon  very  sound  principles.  All  these 
machines  are  made  in  various  sizes,  from  thirty-six  eggs 
upwards,  and  are  reasonable  in  price. 

^he  trouble  involved  with  the  hydro-incubators,  led  many 
to  experiment  with  self-heating  machines,  and  "we  appear 
now  to  be  returning  to  the  original  sy&tem  of  continuous 
burning  lamps ;  but,  certainly,  they  are  in  a  much  less 
objectionable  form  than  at  first,  as  the  water  tanks  are  large, 
consequently  the  loss  of  heat  is  small,  and  the  boilers  are 
made  small  so  that  the  water  in  them  heats  very  rapidly. 
As  a  result  of  these  alterations,  the  lamp  flames  or  gas  jets 
are  diminutive,  compared  with  the  old  ones,  so  that  the  vitia- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  These 
are  decided  steps  in  advance  ;  and,  though  we  should  prefer 


^^  Hear  son  s  hicubator'^  185 

the  hydro-incubators  if  we  were  working  on  a  large  scale,  in 
which  case  the  supply  of  boiling  water  could  be  easily  pro- 
vided for,  we  are  almost  inclined  to  think  that  the  self-heating 
machines  are  better  for  those  who  do  not  wish  to  conduct 
operations  so  extensively.  The  latter  are  certainly  much  easier 
to  work,  and  are  very  little  more  costly  than  the  others.  The 
greatest  dangers  are  in  over-heating,  and,  in  the  case  of  lamp 
machines  especially,  making  the  air  in  the  apartment  where 
it  is  kept  impure — a  danger  which  can  be  obviated  to  a  largo 
extent,  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  care  in  the  working  of  the 
machine,  and  by  having  the  room  well  ventilated. 

One  of  the  best  machines  of  this  class,  is  that  known  as 
Hearson's,  made  by  the  Sun  Auto-Pneumatic  Company,  of 
Southwark.  We  have  heard  the  very  highest  testimonies  as 
to  its  capabilities,  and  recently  heard  a  gentleman,  who 
has  about  a  dozen  incubators  of  various  kinds,  say  that  he 
prefers  this  one  to  all  the  others.  Above  the  lamp,  which 
is  placed  at  one  side  of  the  machine,  is  a  chimney,  which  has 
two  outlets.  The  first  of  these  is  immediately  over  the 
lamp,  but  the  other  runs  through  the  water-tank  and  back 
again,  the  top  of  which  is  the  side  of  the  one  first  named. 
There  is  no  boiler  above  the  lamp,  and  the  only  method  of 
heating  is  by  means  of  the  hot  air  passing  through  this 
longer  chimney,  for,  when  in  operation,  a  cap  fits  on  to  the 
shorter  one,  and  the  heated  air  cannot  escape  in  that  way, 
except  under  such  circumstances  as  w^e  shall  presently  indi- 
cate. Below  the  tank,  and  just  above  the  egg-drawer,  is  a 
metal  capsule  about  two  inches  square,  and  in  this  is  some 
fluid,  unknown  except  to  the  makers,  which  expands  enor- 
mously when  the  heat  rises  to  more  than  10  i  degrees.  On 
the  upper  side  is  a  rod,  which  passes  up  a  tube  through  tire 
tank,  communicating,  by  a  lever,  with  another  rod,  which  is 
attached  to  the  cap  fitting  on  to  the  chimney  immediately 
above  the  lamp.     When  the  machine  is  in  its  normal  con- 


i86 


Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 


dition,  this  cap  remains  in  position,  and  the  hot  air  has  to  go 
the  circuit  ah-eady  named  ;  but,  when  the  heat  rises  above 
104  degrees,  the  capsule  expands,  the  lever  is  acted  upon,  and 
the  cap  is  lifted  from  off  the  chimney,  so  that  the  hot  air 
escapes  there,  and  the  machine  soon  cools  down.  This  cap- 
sule is  wonderfully  susceptible,  and  the  incubator  is  found  to 
work  admirably.  The  usual  arrangements  are  made  in  it  for 
ventilation,  and  moisture,  without  which  no  machine  could 
succeed. 

AMERICAN  INCUBATORS. 


THE    "NEW    centennial"  INCUBATOR 


A — Thumb  piece,  or  crank,  on  roller  of 

tnrning-tray. 
5-Boiler. 
C— Connectiiiir  rod  from  outside  lever  of 

rock-shaft  to  lamp. 
Z)— Outer  door. 

£"— Moisture  pan  under  egg  tray. 
(?— Egg  tray. 

/?— Ventilator  to  nursery. 
/—Lamp  lever. 


/iT- Outside  lever  of  rock-shaft. 
L — Lamp. 

iV— T)oor  of  nursery. 
P— Rods  or  wires  of  adjustable  egg  tray. 
aS'— Springs  that  hold  lamp  in  place. 
7"— Moisture  trough. 
F— Ventilator  flues  from  egs.  chamber. 
Z— Inner  door  with  glass  window  (shown 
open). 


There  are  three  self-regulating  incubators  prominently 
before  the  people  of  this  country,  each  practically  good,  and 
neither  characterized  especially  by  the  modesty  of  its  claims. 


A  merican  Incubators,  187 

The  oldest  of  these  is  Halsted's  ^'  Centennial,''^  now  im- 
proved and  called  New  CENTEis^iq-iAL."^ 

The  construction  of  this  is  certainly  very  simple,  as  it  has 
neither  clock-work,  electricity,  weights,  pulleys,  gear  or 
ratchet  wheels,  provided  the  four  '^  thermostatic  bars  so 
pivoted  and  linked  together  that  they  multiply  power  and 
motion,"  do  not  make  a  complication. 

The  machine  consists  of  a  small  water  heater,  which  warms 
the  water  in  a  tank  placed  over  the  egg-chamber.  The  source 
of  heat  may  be  either  kerosene  oil  or  gas.  The  eggs,  placed 
in  trays,  are  warmed  by  radiation  on  the  upper  surface  only. 
Under  the  trays  are  shallow  pans  of  water  six  to  iQw  degrees 
cooler  than  the  eggs,  the  aim  being  to  imitate  the  conditions 
which  are  observed  when  hens  make  their  nests  on  the 
ground.  The  air  in  the  egg-chamber  is  also  moistened  by 
water  from  troughs  suspended  above  the  eggs.  Ventilation  is 
provided  through  tubes  which  introduce  a  constant  flow  of 
fresh  air  close  under  the  tank,  thus  warming  it  before  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  eggs.  The  impure  air  is  taken  out 
from  the  bottom.  All  the  eggs  are  turned  at  one  time  by 
means  of  an  ingenious  construction  of  the  bottom  of  the  egg- 
tray.  A  set  of  thermostatic  bars  above  the  eggs  raise  and 
lower  the  flame  of  the  lamp  or  gas  burner,  and  thus  adapt  the 
heat  given  out  to  the  changes  of  temperature  in  the  room, 
and  hold  the  heat  of  the  machine  close  to  the  desired  point  by 
a  constant  and  not  by  a  fitful  or  alternating  action.  There  is 
a  chamber  under  the  egg-trays  which  is  warmed  by  the  tube 
which  returns  the  water  from  the  tank  to  the  heater  outside, 
which  is  used  as  a  "  Nursery  "  for  the  chicks. 

The  machine  is  well  made,  neatly  finished,  easily  managed, 
and  gives  satisfaction.  The  inventor  has  long  been  before  the 
public  as  a  maker  of  incubators,  and  this  combines  features 
which  have  proved  their  usefulness  in  his  other  machines. 

*  Made  by  A.  M.  Halsted,  Kyc,  N.  Y. 


1 88 


Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 


THE    "PEEFECT"   hatcher.* 


In  general  construction  this  machine  is  similar  to  the  "  Cen- 
tennial ;  "  that  is,  the  water  tank  is  above  tlie  eggs,  and  it  is 
v/armed  by  a  heater  exterior  to  the  machine,  the  Nursery  is 
below  the  egg-chamber,  and  the  source  of  heat  is  gas  or  kero- 
sene oil.  The  moisture  pans  are  in  contact  with  the  return 
water  pipe  under  the  eggs.  The  eggs  are  turned  by  placing 
an  empty  tray  inverted  over  the  eggs  and  then  inverting  both 
at  once.  The  regulation  of  the  heat  is  effected  by  means  of  a 
thermostatic  bar,  which,  by  moving  a  lever,  connects  an  elec- 
trical (Leclanche)  battery  with  a  clock-work,  which,  when  the 
heat  reaches  the  highest  point,  opens  a  ventilator  and  reduces 
the  flame  of  the  lamp,  and,  when  the  lowest  permitted  tem- 
perature is  reached,  closes  the  draft  and  turns  up  the  flame. 
Thus  the  heat  constantly  but  slowly  vacillates  between  the 
two  extremes  as  fixed — intermediate  between  the  highest  and 
lowest  admissible  temperatures.  A  notable  peculiarity  of  this 
machine,  and  one  Avhich  doubles  its  capacity  after  the  first 


ten  days,  is  its  double  layers  of 


Tlie  upper  tray  is 


*  Made  by  Perfect  Jlatcher  Co.,  Elniira,  N.  Y. 


American  Incubators. 


189 


placed  below  after  being  set  ten  clays,  and  then  the  upper  one 
is  filled.  It  is  fair  to  say  that  experienced  hatchers  differ  in 
their  opinions  as  to  the  merits  of  this  feature,  the  weight  of 
opinion  being  against  it,  except,  perhaps,  wlien  eggs  are  very 
plent3^  The  clock  needs  to  be  wound  once  in  three  days,  but 
daily  winding  is  recomniiended,  and  the  battery  is  guaranteed 
to  work  a  year  without  removal  or  interference.  This  ma- 
chine also  receives  high  commendation  from  those  who  use  it, 
and  is  certainly  successful  and  satisfactory  in  its  results. 


THE  THERMOSTATIC  INCUBATOR. 


In  this  incubator  we  have  several  novel  features.     There  is 
no  water  tank,  and  no  water  is  used  except  to  supply  moisture, 

*  Made  by  E.  S.  Ranwick.  19  Park  Place,  Js[g\v  York. 


I  go  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

air  warmed  by  contact  with  two  metallic  lamp  flues  giving 
the  desired  Avarmth  to  the  eggs.  The  air  thns  warmed  is  dif- 
fused in  the  npper  part  of  the  machine,  where  it  comes  in 
contact  with  pans  of  water,  absorbing  as  much  as  it  needs  ; 
then  it  is  forced  downward,  maintaining  a  nearly  uniformly 
descending  flow  past  and  through  the  ^gg  trays,  and  passes 
out  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine  through  the  Nursery, where 
it  passes  off  by  a  flue  and  chimney  at  the  rear.  The  regula- 
tion of  the  heat  is  accomplished  by  a  thermostatic  bar,  which, 
operating  a  simple  clock-work,  opens  or  closes  the  lamp  flues, 
thus  increasing  or  diminishing  the  heat  of  the  current  of  air, 
which  is  constantly  passing  through  the  machine.  None  of 
the  products  of  combustion  enter  the  agg  chamber. 

The  eggs  are  held  in  bottomless  trays  either  upon  rods  or 
upon  wooden  rollers.  The  rollers  are  connected  by  rubber 
bands  so  that  they  all  turn  together  one  way  or  the  other,  and 
thus  when  one  is  turned  all  turn,  and  the  eggs  lying  upon 
them  turn,  and  may  thus  all  be  turned  over  at  one  operation. 
When  trays  with  rods  are  used,  one-third  more  eggs  may  be 
held  in  the  same  space.  Both  rollers  and  rods  are  set  so  far 
apart  that  while  they  hold  eggs  of  all  sizes  they  allow  the 
chicks  to  fall  through  into  the  Nursery,  the  floor  of  which  is 
four  inches  below  the  Qgg  trays.  The  regulation  of  the  tem- 
perature is  by  its  alternate  rise  and  fall,  but,  as  this  is  very 
gradual  and  may  liave  a  very  small  range,  it  does  not  appear 
to  be  objectionable. 

The  Thermostatic  is  a  comparatively  new  incubator,  yet  is 
well  received  by  practical  men,  and  has  done  very  good  work. 

There  is  a  very  simple  class  of  incubators  with  which  per- 
sons whose  employment,  or  lack  of  other  employment,  is  such 
that  they  can  give  them  frequent  attention,  may  successfully 
hatch  many  chickens.     Of  this  class  is 

THE    **  novelty"  incubator.* 

This  may  stand  for  its  class,  which  is  peculiar  in  having  no 
automatic  regulating  apparatus.     This  machine   consists   of 

*  Made  by  A.  G.  Atkins,  Orarge,  N.  J. 


Brooders  or  Artificial  Mothers.  191 

two  tanks  placed  one  above  and  one  beneath  the  Qgg  drawer, 
and  connected  by  tubes  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  a  very  free 
and  perfect  circulation  of  the  water.  This  double  tank  is 
jacketed  with  felt  and  inclosed  in  a  wooden  box.  The  ^gg 
tray  or  drawer  is  between  the  tanks  as  stated,  and  beneath 
this  a  pan  of  earth  kept  constantly  moist  imparts  sufficient 
moisture  to  the  air. 

The  source  of  heat  is  a  naked  kerosene  lamp  under  the 
centre  of  the  lower  tank.  The  flame  of  this  is  regulated 
according  to  the  judgment  of  the  attendant,  who  keeps  it  as 
near  to  102°  F.  as  he  can. 

In  careful  hands  machines  of  this  general  character  give 
yery  good  results,  and,  tlie  body  of  water  being  large,  the 
changes  occur  slowly,  and  less  constant  attention  is  required 
than  might  be  supposed,  except  when  the  temperature  of  the 
room  is  subject  to  very  sudden  and  great  changes.  In  fact, 
when  such  extraordinary  changes  occur,  all  the  incubators 
need  watching,  and  often  blanketing  or  special  attention. 


No  part  of  an  ordinary  dwelling  is  so  good  as  the  cellar  to 
set  the  incubator  in.  Here  the  temperature  varies  but  little 
between  day  and  night,  and  between  one  day,  when  the  ther- 
mometer may  stand  at  fifty-five,  and  the  next,  when  it  may 
sink  to  zero — a  change  which  not  unfrequently  occurs  several 
times  in  each  winter  in  the  Northern  States,  and  which  all 
other  parts  of  the  house  feel  more  or  less. 

BROODERS  OR  ARTIFICIAL  MOTHERS 

After  the  chicks  are  hatched  and  have  been  for  a  while 
in  the  Nursery,  so  that  they  are  well  dried  oif  and  have  begun 
to  be  lively  and  active,  say  from  two  to  twelve  hours  after 
hatching,  they  should  be  removed  to  the  brooder.  Of  these 
artificial  mothers  there   are  many  kinds.     Each   maker  of 


192  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

incubators  has  one,  and  they  are  usually  good.  Whether  the 
eggs  are  hatched  in  an  incubator  or  by  a  heu,  it  is  best  for 
the  chicks  to  be  soon  removed  and  raised  in  the  artificial 
brooder.  Parasitic  vermiu  quickly  pass  from  the  hens  to  the 
chickens,  aud  are  the  cause  of  many  losses  and  always  of  lack 
of  thrift.  The  artificial  brooder,  if  kept  tolerably  clean,  keeps 
the  chicks  perfectly  free  from  lice,  gapes  and  similar  evils. 

The  fault  of  many  who  use  the  brooders  is  that  they  keep 
the  chicks  too  much  confined  in  them.  The  brooders  should 
DC  set  in  very  cold  weather  on  the  earth-floor  or  deeply  sanded 
floor  of  some  close  room  or  shed  with  a  warm  southern  expos- 
ure and  plenty  of  light.  The  floor  of  a  cold  grapery  is  an 
excellent  place.  As  soon  as  the  weather  is  such  as  will  admit 
of  the  brooder  being  set  out-of-doors — that  is,  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring — a  small  enclosure 
should  be  made  of  wire  netting  and  the  brooder  placed  within 
it.  Then  the  chicks,  being  allowed  perfect  freedom  by  day 
to  run  in  and  out  of  the  brooder,  will  do  much  better  than 
when  in-doors.  This  is  true  even  during  cold  snaps  when  the 
ground  freezes  hard,  or  when  there  is  a  considerable  fall  of 
snow.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  there  shall  always 
be  sufficient  warmth  within  the  brooder,  especially  at  night. 
In  fact,  on  sunshiny  days  there  is  rarely  need  of  any  heat  at 
all  by  day  after  the  little  flock  is  ten  days  old.  — W. 


Rearing— Natural  and  ArtiJiciaL         193 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

EEARING NATURAL   AND    ARTIFICIAL^ 

Size  of  Eggs— Supposed  Ways  of  Testing  Sex  and  Fertility  of  Eggs — Formation 
of  Egg — The  Young  Chicks — First  Day  after  Hatching— Food — Coops — 
Influence  of  Early  Management — Coddling  Injurious — First  Three  or 
Four  Days — Second  Stage — The  Eun— Food — Meat  Diet — Green  Food — 
System  in  Feeding',  — Cold  Mothers  -Troubles  with  Hens — Artificial  Mothers 
—Management — Outdoor  Rearers — Heat — Overcrowding — Teaching  Chicks 
to  Eat — Turkeys  as  Rearers.  —Water— Milk. 

There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  size  of  eggs  laid  by  the 
different  breeds  of  domestic  poultry,  but,  the  size  of  the  Q^^g 
is  very  little  indication  of  the  size  of  the  fowl  which  it  will 
produce.  Of  course  Bantams  lay  much  smaller  eggs  than 
ordinary  fov/ls,  and  ducks  much  larger  ones ;  but,  if  we  take 
the  Spanish  tribe,  which  are  almost  the  smallest  in  size  of 
body,  save  only  Bantams  and  Hamburghs,  they  have  almost 
the  largest  Qg%  of  any;  whereas,  on  the  other  hand, 
Brahmas  and  Cochins,  which  are  the  largest  fowls,  have  very 
much  smaller  eggs  than  any  other  domestic  fowls,  except 
those  already  named.  Doubtless,  they  are  very  rich  in  quality, 
whilst  the  Spanish  are  rather  dry ;  but,  what  we  have  said, 
shows  that  the  size  of  fowl  and  the  size  of  ^gg  have  no  regular 
relationship,  and,  therefore,  larger  eggs  than  those  usually 
laid  by  the  fowls  should  not  be  selected  for  hatching.  Very 
large  eggs  are  generally  double  yolked  and  unfertile,  or, 
if  fertile,  produce  mal-formed  chicks.     The  best,  and  only 


194  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

safe  plan,  is  to  select  ordinary-sized,  smooth-shelled,  and  good 
shaped  eggs,  refusing  such  as  are  abnormal  in  any  way. 
We  have  heard  it  stated  that  long  and  pointed  eggs  produce 
cock  birds,  and  that  short,  round  eggs  produce  hens  ;  but 
the  belief  upon  which  this  supposition  rests,  is  so  wanting  in 
proof,  and  the  opposite  has  been  so  often  shown,  that  it  must 
be  dismissed  as  incorrect.  We  have  also  heard  that  eggs 
laid  before  noon  produce  hens,  and  after  that  time  of  day 
cocks,  the  promulgator  of  this  extraordinary  theory  declaring 
that  he  has  proved  its  truth  scores  of  times ;  but  this  must 
be  dismissed  as  nonsense.  It  has  been  also  said,  and  with  a 
greater  measure  of  probability,  that  the  fertility  of  eggs  can 
be  told  by  placing  the  broad  end  to  the  mouth,  and  breathing 
upon  it.  If  the  Q^^g  feels  cold,  it  is  unfertile  ;  but  if  it  is 
warm,  or,  to  describe  it  more  accurately,  appears  to  give 
back  warmth,  it  has  been  impregnated.  The  reason  for  this 
is  stated  to  be,  that  a  fertile  ^%g  contains  the  germ  of  life, 
and  that  there  cannot  be  life  without  heat ;  therefore,  the  q^^ 
does  not  absorb  the  same  amount  of  heat  when  breathed 
upon,  as  when  an  unfertile,  and,  consequently,  entirely  cold 
Gigg  is  tested.  We  have  known  many  instances  where  this 
test  has  been  applied,  and  the  eggs  selected  accordingly,  with 
the  result  that  they  have  turned  out  as  marked,  when  placed 
in  an  incubator;  but,  we  have  known  other  instances,  where 
it  has  not  been  found  so  reliable,  and  we  cannot,  therefore, 
state  that  the  test  is  an  entirely  safe  one.  It  is  a  fact,  how- 
ever, that  after  eggs  have  been  in  process  of  incubation  for 
ten  or  twelve  days,  and  are  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for 
five  minutes,  the  living  and  the  dead  ones  can  easily  be 
distinguished,  if  held  in  the  hand.  The  former  are  as  warm 
as  when  the  hen  was  on  them,  whilst  the  latter  are  quite 
cold,  or  very  nearly  so. 

The  formation  of  an  ^gg  is  truly  a  wonderful   process, 
and  puts  the  poor,  weak  inventions  of  man  into  the  shade 


Rearing — Natural  and  A  rtificzaL  1 9  5 

The  yolk,  which  contains  the  germ,  when  detached  from  the 
ovary,  finds  its  way  to  the  oviduct,  and  is  there  coated  in 
succession  with  numerous   thin   layers   of   white — which   is 
largely  composed  of  albumen.     It  has  the  chalazas — which 
hold  the  yolk  in   position,  and   are  known  as   the  portion 
which  cooks  take  out  when  beating  up  an  ^gg — fixed,  is  then 
lovered  with  the  two  outer  membranes  or  skins,  and,  finally, 
before  being  voided,  is  covered  with  the  shell.     The  white  is 
the  matter  from  which  the  chick  is  formed,  when  the  germ  of 
life  is  present,  and  the  ^gg  subjected  to  the  proper  conditions. 
The  yolk-bag  contains  the  food  of  the  chick,  and,  during  the 
process  of  incubation,  this  bag  hardens,  and  is  absorbed  with 
its  contents  into  the  stomach   of  the  bird,  shortly  before  it 
emerges  from  the  shell.     Thus,  by  a  bountiful  provision  of 
nature,  no  food  is  needed  by  the  chick  during  the  first  twenty- 
four  hours  of  its  existence,  and  giving  any  food  during  that 
time,  is  not  only  useless,  but  positively  injurious,  so  that  no 
attempt  should  be  made  to  force  the  birds  to  eat.     Young 
poultry  keepers  often  get  anxious,  because  the  food  put  down 
during  the  first  day  is  not  eaten,  but  for  the  reason  just 
stated,  there  is  no  need  to  have  any  fears  on  that  account, 
and  the  appetite  will  come  in  proper  time,  for  which  patience, 
must  be  exercised.  Another  custom  is  observed  by  some  per- 
sons, which  is  a  useless  one,  namely,  the  giving  of  a  pepper- 
corn to  the  newly-hatched  chick ;  but,  unaware  as  we  are  of 
the  reason  advanced  for  this  custom,  it  is  not  based  upon 
experience  or  upon  common  sense,  and  we  can  only  charac- 
terise it  as   "  an  old  wives'   fable."      A    still  more  foolish 
custom  is  occasionally  found,  which  deserves  the   strongest 
condemnation,  namely,  that  of  tearing  off"  the  hard  scale  found 
on  the  beaks  of  all  young  chicks — so  placed  to  enable  them  to 
break  through  the  shell — and  putting  it  down  the  throat  of 
the  bird.     This  is  not  only  without  anything  to  recommend 
it,  but  is,  at  the  same  time,  cruel  and  barbarous,  and   also 


196  Profitable  Poultjy  Keeping. 

unnecessary,  as  the  scale  naturally  falls  off  after  a  few  days. 
Possibly,  if  we  could  trace  it,  this  custom  originated  in  some 
old  superstition,  born  in  an  age  when  there  was  a  charm  in 
cruelty,  or,  when  no  thought  was  given  to  the  sufferings  of 
those  who  were  weak  and  defenceless. 

When  the  process  of  hatching  is  entirely  over,  and  all  the 
birds  are  out,  it  is  better  not  to  disturb  the  hen,  after  having 
given  her  a  good  feed,  for  twenty  to  twenty-four  hours,  when 
some  hard-boiled  e^g,  chopped  fine,  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  bread  crumbs,  and  slightly  moistened  with  milk, 
should  be  given  to  both  the  hen  and  her  brood.  The  best 
plan  for  making  the  bread  crumbs  is  to  get  a  sieve,  about 
ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  a  moderately  fine 
mesh.  This,  in  use,  is  turned  upside  down,  and  bread  rubbed 
through  with  the  hands,  in  which  way,  if  the  loaf  is  not  too 
new,  nice  even  crumbs  will  be  made  very  rapidly.  When 
giving  the  first  feed,  it  is  best  to  put  the  food  upon  a  board 
in  front  of  the  nest,  and  the  hen  and  chickens  placed  near  it, 
when  the  tapping  of  the  hen's  beak  will  be  sufficient  to  attract 
the  attention  of  the  chicks,  and  they  will  soon  begin  to  feed. 
No  more  than  they  eat  readily  should  be  given,  and  any 
that  is  left  ought  to  be  removed  at  once,  for  the  best  rule  for 
feeding  chicks  is,  little  and  often.  Only  sufficient  should  be 
moistened  to  serve  two  or  three  times  ;  and,  when  the  weather 
is  cold  or  wet,  a  pinch  of  stimulating  powder  will  be  very 
beneficial.  Clean  water  in  clean  dishes  must  be  given,  or, 
what  is  better,  warmed  milk ;  but  shallow  dishes  or  saucers 
should  be  used,  or  the  birds  may  get  drowned.  We  once 
bought  some  dishes  which  were  made  with  a  series  of  rings 
or  ridges  on  the  upper  side,  so  that  the  birds  could  not 
possibly  come  to  any  harm,  and  the  quantity  of  water  which 
each  held  was,  so  small  that  they  had  to  be  refilled  twice  or 
thrice  a  day.  But  small  fountains,  with  a  cup  at  one  side, 
are  even  better  than  these,  for  the  birds  can  drink  out  of 


The  Hen  Coop,  197 

them,  but  cannot  stand  or  get  into  tliem.  They  are  made 
both  in  ware  and  zinc,  and  can  be  obtained  at  reasonable 
prices. 

After  the  hen  and  her  brood  have  had  their  first  feed,  they 
should  be  removed  to  a  coop,  either  placed  in  a  shed  (such 
as  we  have  before  described),  or  in  some  warm,  dry,  sheltered 
spot,  where  the  sun  will  reach.  A  lawn,  a  meadow,  a  wood, 
or,  in  fact,  any  place  that  is  grassy,  and,  what  we  have  said, 
will  answer ;  but  it  must  be  away  from  the  ordinary  hens, 
as  they  are  very  apt,  from  jealous  motives,  to  interfere  with 
chickens  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  coops,  must  not  be  too 
near  each  other,  without  some  provision  to  prevent  the  hens 
fighting,  which  will  not  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  young 
broods.  Coops  of  all  patterns,  shapes,  and  sizes  can  be 
obtained,  but  if  cheapness  be  desired  more  than  appearance, 
a  box  or  a  barrel  is  capable  of  being  made  into  a  good  coop, 
by  any  one  handy  with  tools.  The  things  to  be  sought  for 
in  a  coop  are — that  it  shall  be  dry  above  and  below,  ventilated, 
but  free  from  draughts,  easily  moved  about,  having  laths  or 
bars  at  the  front,  so  that  the  chicks  can  get  out  and  in,  but 
not  the  hen,  and  have  a  folding  shutter,  so  that  the  whole 
can  be  closed  up  at  night.  If  the  ground  be  dry  and  sandy 
in  its  nature,  or,  when  the  coop  is  in  the  shed,  there  need  be 
no  floor,  as  the  straw  used  will  be  sufficient ;  but,  if  it  be  at 
all  damp  or  cold,  a  wooden  floor  should  be  used.  A  flour 
barrel,  which  can  be  bought  for  a  quarter^  will  make  two 
good  coops,  if  the  head  be  fixed  on  and  the  barrel  itself  sawn 
in  two.  Laths  can  then  be  nailed  on  to  the  only  open  part, 
constituting  it  the  front,  and  two  or  three  staves  can  be  taken 
out  of  the  under  sides,  so  that  there  will  be  no  floor,  or  it 
can  be  raised  up  above  the  ground  by  wooden  feet  or  bricks, 
which  should  always  be  done  when  a  wooden  floor  is  used. 
Thus  in  a  very  simple  manner  can  a  capital  coop  be  made, 
and  at  little  cost;  but  if  something  better  is  needed  any 

o 


198 


Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 


joiner  can  make  one  to  look  nice,  or  there  are  plenty  sold 
both  at  low  and  high  prices.  We  like  those  best  that  have 
floors  separate  to  facilitate  cleaning,  and  nailed  on  to  two 
pieces  of  scantling,  the  floor  fitting  inside  the  coop,  and  the 
two  sides  of  the  latter  resting  upon  the  scantling,  for  by  this 
means  all  chance  of  the  wet  getting  in  is  obviated.  Fig.  10 
is  a  capital  example  of  one  of  these.  If  the  coops  cannot 
be  put  very  wide  apart,  it  is  better  to  use  wire  runs,  as  these 
prevent  the  chicks  wandering  away  and  getting  mixed  with 
other  broods.     In  fact,  it  is  always  better  to  use  a  run  for 


Fig.  10. — Chicken  V-oop. 


the  first  week,  if  the  coop  is  outside,  moving  it  to  fresh  ground 
every  day,  but  after  then,  if  there  is  plenty  of  ground,  the 
run  can  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  hen  allowed  to  be  out 
also,  at  least  for  a  few  hours  in  the  day. 

The  growing  stage  in  the  life  of  young  chickens,  as 
in  children,  is  the  time  that  very  largely  controls  their 
size  and  stamina,  and  therefore  much  depends  upon 
the  method  of  treatment  during  such  growth.  Unless 
there  is  a  good  supply  of  nutritious  food,  the  strain  upon 
the   system  will  not  be  provided  for,  and  the  chicken  soon 


Feeding  Yoimg  Chicks,  199 

dies,  or,  grows  up  a  weedy,  stunted  thing,  of  no  use  to 
any  one.  We  must  not  be  thought  from  this  to  bo 
advocating  pampering  or  coddling,  for  we  do  not  believe 
in  such  a  system;  but,  there  is  a  vray  of  feeding  well  in 
which  there  is  no  pampering,  and  as  to  coddling,  whilst  wo 
certainly  think  that  the  young  chicks  should  be  protected 
from  the  severe  storms,  it  is  much  better  to  put  them  out 
of  doors — except  in  severe  weather — as  soon  as  they  are  a 
week  or  ten  days  old.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to 
very  early  hatched  chicks,  for,  as  they  are  brought  into  the 
world  at  an  unseasonable  period,  they  need  special  treatment, 
and  must  be  kept  in  such  a  house  as  we  have  already 
described.  There  is  another  advantage  also,  in  giving  them 
liberty,  and  that  is,  they  can  find  grubs  and  worms,  which, 
it  must  be  remembered,  are  their  natural  food.  But  on  these 
topics  we  have  already  said  all  that  is  needed. 

For  the  first  three  or  four  days,  it  is  better  to  continue  the 
G^g  and  bread  crumbs,  of  which  the  hen  should  be  allowed 
a  share,  as  it  is  necessary  to  get  up  the  tone  of  her  system, 
which,  naturally,  is  much  reduced  during  sitting,  in  order 
that  she  may  begin  to  lay  as  soon  as  she  gives  up  her  charge ; 
otherwise,  if  she  is  not  well  fed,  there  may  several  weeks 
elapse  before  she  does  this,  and  thus  "  penny  wise  "  will  be 
^^  pound  foolish."  The  chicks  require  to  be  fed  as  soon  after 
daylight  as  possible,  and  at  intervals  of  two  hours  until  tho 
evening ;  a  final  meal  to  be  given  by  candle-light,  about  ten 
o'clock  at  night.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  be  up  so  early  in  the 
morning  as  this  may  appear  to  require,  a  little  canary  seed 
should  be  left  overnight,  where  the  birds  can  get  it  as  soon 
as  they  are  astir ;  but  this  will  not  take  the  place  of  warm 
food  and  fresh  milk,  so  that  it  must  not  be  made  an  excuse 
for  idleness.  A  bad  riser  is  certain  to  be  behind  with  his 
chicks — all  other  things  being  equal — compared  with  one 
who  is  a  good  getter  up. 

0  2 


200  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

Inexperienced  poultry  keepers  are  very  apt  to  make  a  great 
mistake  in  rearing  chickens,  by  neglecting  those  a  month  old 
and  upwards,  for  the  younger  broods.  The  reason  of  this  is 
not  difficult  to  realise,  for,  it  is  thought  that  the  birds,  having 
got  so  far  in  safety,  are  able  to  look  after  themselves,  and 
do  not  require  the  same  amount  of  attention  as  the  younger 
ones  ;  whereas,  the  fact  really  is,  that  the  birds  at  the  age 
mentioned,  need  actually  more  care  than  they  ever  did 
before,  or  will  again.  Doctors  tell  parents  that  boys  and  girls 
in  their  teens  need  more  support  than  at  any  other  time. 
So  it  is  with  chicks  ;  and  neglect  at  this  period  is  attended 
with  very  serious  results,  more  birds  being  lost  then,  than  at 
any  other  stage  of  their  growth.  The  cause  is,  that  the  down 
or  nest-feathers,  which  have  enveloped  the  body,  are  being 
shed,  and  tlie  full-grown  feathers  taking  their  place,  thus 
causing  a  continual  drain  upon  the  system  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  a 
first  moult,  and  there  is  not  the  same  strength  to  meet  it  as  is 
found  in  adult  birds.  Extra  warmth,  additional  nourishment, 
and  careful  feeding,  are  all  most  important  to  the  well-being 
of  the  chick,  and  undue  exposure  to  cold  or  wet  will  be  very 
dangerous,  and  ought  to  be  guarded  against.  Of  course, 
some  breeds  are  hardier  than  others,  and  get  through  this 
stage  much  more  easily,  but  the  strongest  need  such  care  as 
we  have  indicated.  In  fine  open  weather  the  feeding  will  be 
the  great  point  requiring  attention,  but,  in  bad  weather,  it 
will  be  a  good  plan  to  put  the  coop  inside  the  chicken-house. 

When  the  coop  is  outside  it  is  better  to  have  a  wire  run 
for  the  chicks,  though  this  can  be  discarded  after  the  first 
week,  and  the  birds  allowed  to  run  about  freely.  At  the  end 
of  another  week  the  hen  may  be  allowed  out  also ;  but  she 
must  be  kept  within  an  enclosure,  or  be  w^atched,  for,  if  left 
alone,  she  will  probably  lead  them  away  too  far,  and  tax  their 
strength  more  than  they  can  bear.  For  food,  oatmeal, 
Spratt's,  or   Chamberlin's   prepared    meals,  may   be  given 


Choice  of  Food.  201 

alternately,  with  some  crushed  hempseed,  which,  when  they 
are  three  weeks  old,  can  be  substituted  by  dari  or  buckwheat, 
both  of  which,  and  the  latter  especially,  make  capital  chicken 
foods.  Some  correspondence  has  appeared  in  poultry  journals 
of  late,  in  which  the  rearing  of  chicks  on  grain  alone  was 
advocated,  and  some  writers  stated,  as  their  experience,  that 
it  is  better  than  soft  foods.  We  believe  too  much  pampering 
does  takes  place,  but,  at  the  same  time,  we  think  that,  for  early 
broods  especially,  these  warm,  nutritious  foods  are  of  immense 
service.  Rice  is  a  food  which  chicks  are  wonderfully 
fond  of,  if  properly  prepared  ;  but  as  it  is  entirely  deficient 
in  bone-forming  qualities,  some  bone  meal  should  be  mixed 
with  it,  or  leg  weakness  will  probably  ensue.  The  best  way 
to  prepare  it  is,  to  put  a  pint  of  poultry  rice  into  three  pints 
of  water,  and  allow  it  to  simmer  (not  boil),  on  the  stove  or 
side  of  the  kitchen  fire,  for  a  couple  of  hours,  when  it  will 
be  found  that  the  rice  will  have  swollen  out  and  absorbed  all 
the  water.  If  the  soil  upon  which  the  chicks  are  kept, 
contains  plenty  of  worms  and  slugs,  it  can  be  dug  up  a  little, 
and  there  will  be  no  need  to  provide  any  animal  food ;  but  if 
it  is  sandy,  or  the  birds  are  kept  in  a  confined  space,  then 
some  provision  must  be  made  in  this  way.  Dead  fowls  come 
in  very  useful  for  the  generation  of  gentles,  and  should  be 
allowed  to  hang  a  few  days,  when  thousands  of  fresh  flies* 
eggs  will  have  been  deposited.  If  buried  in  the  run  the 
maggots  will  soon  begin  to  show  themselves,  much  to  the 
advantage  of  its  inmates ;  though  upon  no  account  should 
a  diseased  fowl  be  used  in  this  way.  Green  food  should  also 
be  supplied,  and  can  take  any  form  that  is  most  convenient. 
Grass  is,  of  course,  to  be  desired,  but  not  cut  grass,  if  any- 
thing better  can  be  got.  Lettuces,  cabbages,  and,  in  fact, 
any  garden  stuff  of  this  nature  may  be  given ;  and  we  know 
of  one  of  the  largest  breeders  in  the  kingdom,  who  puts  down, 
in  his  chicken  run,  a  barrowful  of  lettuces  every  morning, 


202  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

and  he  declares  that  he  would  never  be  able  to  raise  such 
fowls  as  he  does,  were  it  not  for  this.  A  spare  corner  of  the 
garden  may  very  profitably  be  set  on  one  side  for  growing 
lettuces,  and  a  plentiful  supply  thus  secured. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  best  system  which  can 
be  adopted  in  feeding  chickens  is  little  and  often.  For  the 
first  fortnight  they  ought  to  be  fed  every  two  hours,  for  the 
next  month  every  three  hours,  and  after  that,  until  they  reach 
maturity,  four  times  a  day.  As  already  stated,  the  first  food 
should  be  given  as  soon  after  daylight  as  possible,  and  the 
plan,  or  rather  want  of  plan  in  some  yards,  of  allowing 
chicks  to  run  about  three  or  four  hours  before  getting  their 
first  meal,  is  calculated  to  do  more  harm  than  most  people 
think  of.  The  leaving  of  seed  overnight  is  better  than 
nothing,  but  a  warm  meal  is  very  much  to  be  preferred. 
In  large  yards,  where  the  food  takes  some  time  to  prepare, 
the  following  system,  which  we  saw  recommended  some  time 
ago,  may  be  adopted  with  advantage :—  Get  a  square  wooden 
box,  strongly  made  of  thick  wood,  and  line  this  out  with  felt, 
or  felt  carpeting — sides,  bottom,  and  lid,  so  that  the  centre 
compartment  may  only  be  about  one-fourth  the  size  of 
the  box  itself,  the  dimensions  of  which  must  be  regulated  by 
the  requirements  of  the  owner.  Last  thing  at  night,  half 
cook  some  food  in  a  tin  kettle  or  pan  with  lid,  made  to  fit  the 
centre  of  the  box,  and  put  kettle  and  food  just  as  it  is  into  it. 
Then  close  the  box,  and  next  morning  the  food  will  be  found 
perfectly  cooked,  and  quite  hot,  whenever  opened.  By  this 
means,  all  the  trouble  consequent  upon  lighting  a  fire  and 
getting  water  to  boil  will  be  obviated,  and  the  chicks  can  be 
fed  as  soon  as  any  one  is  astir,  at  least  half  an  hour  before 
food  could  be  prepared  for  them.  The  last  feed  at  night 
should  be  given  about  an  hour  before  dusk,  except  to  the 
birds  less  than  a  month  old,  who  need  a  feed  by  candle- 
light, and  this  feed  must  consist  of  grain,  as  it  takes  longer 


Separation  of  Brood  fro77z  Hen,  203 

to  digest  than  meal,  and,  consequently,  keeps  up  the  warmth 
much  longer  than  soft  food  would.  Intermediate  meals 
should  be  varied,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  try  and  change  the 
food  as  much  as  possible,  as  by  this  means  the  appetite  is 
tempted  and  growth  encouraged.  A  bad  feeder  can  never  be 
anything  but  a  bad  thriver,  and,  change  of  diet  by  tempting 
the  appetite,  is  the  best  method  of  inducing  the  birds  to  eat 
heartily.  Overfeeding  must,  however,  be  carefully  avoided, 
and  food  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  birds  are  satisfied, 
never  being  allowed  to  stand  about. 

When  the  chicks  are  about  six  to  eight  weeks  old,  the  hen 
will  begin  to  get  restless  and  neglect  them,  when  she  should 
at  once  be  returned  to  the  laying  house,  and  the  chicks  then 
put  into  a  separate  house  and  run.  If  the  weather  is  at  all 
cold  or  stormy,  cold  mothers  may  be  provided,  or,  if  not, 
broad  shelves  covered  with  dry  sand  or  earth  will  answer  best. 
These  cold  mothers  are  simply  wooden  frames  across  which 
canvas  is  stretched,  and  on  the  underside  of  this  canvas,  strips 
of  flannel,  or  thin  felt,  is  stitched,  so  that  when  raised  up  or 
fitted  into  grooved  ends,  the  chickens  get  under  and  are 
protected  from  the  cold.  Generally,  however,  there  is  no  need 
for  anything  of  this  kind,  as  the  hen  remains  long  enough 
with  her  brood,  to  enable  them  to  do  without  further  pro- 
tection ;  but,  as  we  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter, 
care  and  attention  are  specially  necessary  at  this  stage  of 
a  chicken's  existence ;  it  is  better  to  be  on  the  safe  side, 
and,  as  there  is  no  artificial  heat  in  a  mother  such  as  we 
have  described,  there  the  birds  are  not  coddled  by  the  use 
of  it.  Plenty  of  room  should  also  be  given,  and  we  prefer, 
whenever  possible,  to  divide  our  chickens,  which  can  easily  be 
done  by  means  of  the  movable  poultry-houses,  recommended 
in  the  chapter  dealing  with  the  subject.  The  older  chicks  are 
very  prone  to  ill-treat  the  younger  ones,  and  it  is  for  the  sake 
of  these  latter,  as  well  as  to  prevent  overcrowding,  that  we 


204  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

adopt  this  plan.  The  givh:ig  of  room  allows  the  chicks  to 
run  and  fly  about,  which  develops  their  wing  and  breast 
muscles,  keeps  them  in  health,  and  assists  their  growth. 
Nothing  is  more  miserable  than  to  see  chickens,  from  a 
month  to  three  months  old,  cooped  up  in  a  small  run.  No 
wonder  they  grow  slowly,  and  are  always  small  and  stunted  in 
appearance. 

As  we  have  given  a  detailed  acount  cf  the  various  incuba- 
tors now  offered  for  sale,  together  with  a  brief  history  of  the 
question  of  artificial  incubation  itself,  it  is  necessary  that  we 
should  say  something  about  artificial  rearing,  for  one  would 
naturally  appear  to  depend  upon  the  other.  All  poultry  keepers 
have  at  some  period  been  troubled  with  bad  sitters,  and, 
also,  with  clumsy,  negligent  mothers,  the  latter  especially, 
being  very  annoying.  It  is,  doubtless,  very  provoking  to  have 
a  setting  of  eggs  spoiled,  but  it  is  even  more  annoying,  when 
they  have  been  hatched,  and  the  chicks  are  running  about 
strong  and  lively,  to  find  some  crushed  to  death,  and  others 
dying  for  w^ant  of  proper  attention  from  the  hen.  Hence 
many  attempts  have  been  made,  to  solve  the  problem  of  rear- 
ing by  artificial  means. 

These  artificial  mothers  were  in  use  by  a  few  persons,  a 
considerable  time  before  incubators  arrived  at  anything  like 
their  present  stage  of  perfection,  and,  as  might  naturally  be 
expected,  they  are  now  very  largely  used.  At  first  the  makers 
of  incubators  fitted  them  to  their  machines,  but  this,  we 
believe,  helped  to  make  the  latter  even  more  unsuccessful 
than  they  otherwise  might  have  been,  for  when  any  chickens 
were  brought  out,  they  were  necessarily  kept  in  runs  a  foot 
or  two  square,  and,  of  course,  indoors,  so  that  in  a  few  days 
they  died  off,  from  want  of  fresh  air  and  proper  exercise. 
The  first  step  towards  success  was  in  the  separation  alto- 
gether of  the  mother  from  the  incubator,  and  they  have, 
since  this  has  been  done,  been  found  most  successful.     At 


Incubators,  205 

first  sheepskins  were  used,  with  the  wool  downwards,  and 
above  the  skin  there  was  a  hot- water  tank,  but  the  chickens 
were  very  often  hung  in  the  wool,  and  they,  therefore,  never 
became  really  popular.  The  first  to  win  anything  like 
popular  favour,  was  a  contrivance  similar  to  the  one  just 
named,  but,  with  the  important  exception,  that  flannel  strips 
were  used  instead  of  the  sheepskin,  and,  as  there  were  capital 
arrangements  made  for  heating,  ventilating,  and  cleaning, 
much  real  success  was  attained  by  it.  The  present  writer 
reared  large  numbers  of  chickens  during  several  seasons  in 
these  machines  ;  and,  as  at  that  time  the  incubators  were 
unsatisfactory,  hens  were  used  for  hatching,  but,  as  the 
artificial  system  of  rearing  presented  so  many  advantages 
over  the  natural  one,  the  chicks  were  taken  from  the  hens, 
when  a  day  old,  and  placed  in  the  artificial  mother.  The 
demand  for  these  mothers  was  but  small,  and  that  kept  up 
the  price,  so  that  only  a  few  persons  went  in  for  them. 

When  incubators  a  few  years  ago  became  more  easily 
w^orked,  there  came  with  the  demand  for  them,  one  also  for 
the  mothers,  especially  as  many  who  might  have  thought  it 
cruel  to  separate  the  hen  and  her  chickens,  could  have  no 
such  feelings  with  respect  to  machine-hatched  birds,  and  all 
the  makers  of  the  former  have  been  compelled  to  provide  the 
latter  also.  These  are  generally  made  very  similar,  both  in 
appearance  and  methods  of  working.  There  are,  therefore, 
the  hydro  or  hot  water  mothers,  and,  also,  those  in  which  there 
is  a  continuous  burning  lamp  ;  but,  whilst  we  in  great  measure 
prefer  the  former  method  for  incubators,  the  mothers  upon 
this  system  are  rather  troublesome  when  kept  out  in  the 
open,  as  boiling  water  has  to  be  carried  to  them  twice  or 
thrice  a  day,  and  this,  in  many  cases,  involves  an  amount  of 
trouble  which  becomes  a  serious  burden.  To  obviate  the  diffi- 
culty, some  of  the  hydro-mothers  have  a  lamp  and  circulating 
boiler  fitted  to  them,  so  that  by  lighting  the  former,  for  an 


206 


Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 


hour  or  two  every  day,  the  heat  is  kept  up.  This  is  much  to 
be  preferred  to  the  other  plan,  and  saves  unnecessary  trouble, 
but  the  lamp  must  be  so  protected  so  as  not  to  be  easily  blown 
out.  One  of  the  best  mothers  we  know  of,  is  made  by  Messrs. 
Tomlinson  &  Co.,  Birniingliam,  Eiig.,  called  ^'The  AVingod 
Brooder."  It  is  fitted  with  a  continuous  burning  lamp,  so 
arranged  that  it  can  scarcely  be  affected  by  wind,  or  anything 
else,  outside.     At  the  sides  are  flaps  or  wings  closing  in  at 


THE  "acme"  in-door  REARERe 

Fig.  11.— Owen's  "Acme"  In-door  Rearer. 

night,  and  it  can  be  fitted  with  outside  cover  and  runs,  so 
that,  altogether,  it  is  a  most  useful  appliance.  Another 
very  good  one,  of  which  Fig.  11  is  an  illustration,  is  that 
made  by  Mr,  John  Owen,  of  the  Minories,  London.  This 
is  provided  with  a  lamp  and  has  a  covered  run.  It  can 
also  be  fitted  with  a  cover  so  that  it  can  be  used  in  the  open. 
Mr.  Jas.  Watson,  of  Kilwinning,  Scotland,  has  a  very  good 
one  also,  and  all  the  other  makers  send  out  mothers  more  or 
less  near  to  our  ideal. 

At  first  it  was  the  custom  to  keep  the  mothers  in  houses 
or  sheds,  but  that  was  found  to  be  a  bad  plan.  It  may  be  advi- 
sable to  do  this  for  the  first  few  days,  and  hence  the  value  of 
a  small  chicken  nursery  made  by  Messrs.  Tomlinson  and  Co., 
but  we  do  not  approve  of  the  plan  for  older  birds.  Chicks 
need,  and  must  have,  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  the  only  shelters 


Out-door  ''Rearers,' 


207 


we  should  use,  after  they  are  a  week  old,  except  very  early  in 
the  season,  are  the  covers  sold  with  most  machines,  which 
protect  the  mothers  from  wet,  and  give  the  hirds  a  dry  run. 
This  is  shown  in  the  Christy  out-door  rearers  (fig.  12). 
These,  as  will  be  seen,  have  wooden  sides  and  glass  tops,  and 


Fig.  12. — Christy's  Out-door  Rearer. 


can  have  wooden  floors,  or  not,  as  may  be  desired.  They 
have  doors,  so  that  the  chickens  can  be  allowed  out  or  kept 
in,  as  the  attendant  may  think  best,  and  generally  are  easily 
moved  about,  so  that  the  birds  may  have  fresh  ground  every 
day.  During  the  first  week  the  chicks  should  be  kept  in  the 
chicken  house,  but  after  that,  unless  the  weather  be  excep- 
tionally severe,  they  are  much  better  outside.  The  run 
should  always  be  dry  below  and  changed  every  day,  with 
fresh  sand  or  dry  earth  thickly  covering  the  floor,  if  it  be  a 
wooden  one.  Pure  air  and  cleanliness  are  essential  to  success, 
and,  for  this  reason,  the  mother  should  every  day  be  lifted  out 
of  its  place,  so  that  all  vapours  and  foul  air  can  get  away,  and, 


2o8  Profitable  Potilt7y  Keeping, 

at  the  same  time,  the  whole  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned. 
Where  there  is  flannel  for  the  chicks  to  nestle  amongst,  this 
should  be  taken  out  and  purified,  by  having  plenty  of  dry 
earth  well  shaken  through  it.  The  heat  also  needs  to  be 
well  looked  after,  as  many  poultry  keepers  make  a  great  mis- 
take in  having  their  machines  too  hot,  which  is  a  much 
greater  evil  than  a  little  cold  would  be.  Mothers  should  nevei? 
be  allowed  to  go  above  80  degs.,  and,  except  in  summer, 
below  &5  degs.,  bat  the  margin  between  these  two  is  sufficient 
for  the  variations  of  the  weather.  It  is  true  that  the  chicks 
will  not  get  so  close  to  the  tank,  if  hotter,  but  too  much  heat 
makes  them  tender,  and  it  is  to  be  remembered,  that  the  heat 
from  their  own  bodies  increases  the  temperature,  so  that  in 
summer  if  the  mother  was  80  degs.  before  they  went  into  it, 
it  would  probably  be  ten  or  fifteen  degs.  higher  after  they  had 
been  in  for  a  time.  The  best  test  is  to  put  the  hand  against 
the  bottom  of  the  tank,  when  it  may  be  accepted  as  all  right 
if  just  warm  and  comfortable,  but  if  the  hand  cannot  be  kept 
against  the  metal  it  is  too  hot.  Overcrowding  is  also  very 
dangerous,  and  we  would  not  be  inclined  to  put  more  than 
forty  chicks  a  week  old,  or  twenty-five  above  that  age,  into 
one  machine.  Nor  is  it  wise  to  keep  them  in  it  too  long ; 
for,  if  healthy  and  strong,  they  may,  when  five  or  six  weeks 
old,  be  transferred  to  the  cold  mother,  which,  as  we  have 
already  described,  is  simply  one  without  any  water  tank  ov 
heating  arrangements.  The  state  of  the  weather  and  the 
strength  of  the  birds  will,  however,  largely  decide  this 
question.  As  to  teaching  the  birds  to-  eat,  which  the  hen 
dees,  this  only  needs  to  be  done  with  the  first  brood.  The 
way  to  proceed  is  to  put  some  food  on  a  piece  of  board, 
and  tap  the  same  with  a  pencil  or  piece  of  stick,  to  which 
imitation  of  the  hen's  pecking  the  chicks  will  readily  answer. 
Later  broods  can  have  an  older  chick  put  with  them,  and  it 
will  in  this  respect  act  a  maternal  part. 


Hatching  under  Ttwkeys,  209 

In  many  parts  of  France,  turkeys  are  very  largely  used  for 
the  hatching  and  rearing  of  chickens,  the  advantage  of  these 
birds  being  their  docility,  their  capability  for  covering  a  large 
number  of  eggs,  and  caring  for  a  large  number  of  chickens. 
It  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  turkeys,  with  fifty  or  sixty 
chicks,  being  driven  in  the  morning  to  a  wood  adjacent  to  the 
residence  of  their  owner,  where  they  are  left  all  day  in 
charge  of  decrepit  old  women  or  young  children.  In  some 
instances,  the  chicks  have  been  hatched  in  incubators,  but 
this  is  generally  in  those  districts  where  there  are  hatching 
factories,  if  we  may  use  the  term,  at  which  places  Qgg  hatch- 
ing is  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  the  peasants  taking  their 
eggs  to  be  incubated,  and  paying  a  percentage  of  the  chickens 
for  the  trouble.  But  in  England,  also,  many  persons  have  used 
turkeys  with  very  good  results.  There  are,  however,  several 
things  necessary  to  make  this  plan  a  success.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  ground  enough,  as  putting  a  turkey  with 
half  a  hundred  chicks  upon  a  small  piece  of  land  would  be 
a  failure,  for  there  would  not  be  moving  room,  and  the  ground 
would  soon  get  contaminated.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  an 
unlimited  run  be  given,  the  turkey  must  be  watched,  or  she 
will  lead  the  chicks  astray  and  overtax  their  strength.  It 
is  true  she  may  be  cooped,  but  after  the  first  ten  days  this  is 
not  advisable,  and  the  best  plan  is  to  keep  her  in  a  fenced 
run.  Where  this  can  be  done^  turkeys  will  be  found  to  answer 
admirably,  but,  of  course,  the  houses  or  coops  used  for 
them  need  to  be  well  ventilated  and  roomy ;  especially  so, 
in  fact,  because  of  the  larger  number  of  birds  to  be  kept 
therein.  They  are  very  easily  managed,  and  the  way  to  get 
one  to  take  charge  of  a  brood,  is  to  allow  it  to  sit  on  potatoes 
for  a  few  days,  and  then  the  chicks  may  be  put  under  her 
at  night.  We  have  seldom  known  one  refuse  accepting  a 
charge  of  this  kind  ;  but,  in  order  to  be  on  the  safe  side,  it  is 
as  well  to  put  only  a  few   in  at  first     If  she    attempts  to 


2IO  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

injure  them,  they  must  be  removed,  but  if  not,  all  may  be 
given  to  her,  and  she  will  be  delighted  to  have  so  large  a 
family,  nursing  them  in  most  respects  better  than  an  ordinary 
hen  would  or  even  could.  When  this  system  of  rearing  is 
adopted,  special  care  will  have  to  be  given  to  the  weaklj 
ones,  and  any  so  found,  should  at  once  be  removed  where 
they  will  not  be  crow^led,  and  can  have  individual  attention. 
When  the  birds  are  a  month  old,  if  of  a  strong,  hardy  breed, 
the  largest  may  be  removed  to  a  cold  mother,  and  this  wull 
give  more  room  to  the  rest.  As  soon  as  all  appear  to  be 
grown  enough,  they  may  be  taken  away  and  a  fresh  batch 
given  to  the  turkey,  which  will  rear  a  couple  of  hundred  in 
a  season  in  this  way  without  the  least  objection. 

From  first  to  last  the  necessity  for  drink  should  never  be 
forgotten.  Water  is  the  natural  drink  of  all  poultry.  It 
should  be  pure  and  fresh,  the  drinking  vessels  being  filled 
at  least  daily,  and,  whenever  filled,  carefully  emptied  and 
cleansed.  There  are  numerous  convenient  forms  of  drink- 
ing fountains,  but  in  the  use  of  them  there  is  a  constant 
temptation  for  the  attendant  to  neglect  to  empty  them,  but 
to  simply  fill  them  afresh.  These  should  never  be  used  for 
milk,  which  is  excellent  for  chickens  and  fowls  of  all  ages ; 
but  this  should  be  presented  in  shallow  pans,  so  protected 
that  the  chicks  cannot  get  into  them. 


Food  and  Feeding,  2 1 1 


CHAPTEH  XYIII. 

FOOD  AND  FEEDING. 

Food  the  Fuel  of  all  Life— Effect  oE  Bad  Food— Effect  of  Over-feeding— Food  for 
Fowls  in  Confinement  not  to  be  same  as  when  at  Liberty — What  is  Needed  in 
Food — Qualities  of  the  Grains— Barley — Oats — Wheat — Maize — Buckwheat 
— Pulse — Rice — Bone-meal— Water. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  especially  by  new  beginners  in 
poultry-keeping,  what  is  the  best  food  for  poultry,  and  the 
matter  is  of  such  great  importance,  that  we  wish  to  deal  with 
it  fully,  so  that  our  readers  may  know  what  is  the  best  food 
for  poultry  under  the  conditions  in  which  their  fowls  live. 
That  food  must  have  a  very  great  influence  upon  the  health 
and  success  of  the  birds,  will  be  acknowledged  at  once  by  all, 
for  it  is  virtually  the  fuel  which  keeps  the  engine  going,  and 
any  neglect  to  supply  this  fuel,  or  the  supplying  of  improper 
fuel,  means  that  the  machine  will  not  work  properly,  and 
that  there  will  be  a  great  loss  of  power.  This  is  the  case 
with  all  animals,  and  the  attention  which  has  been  paid  to 
the  question  of  feeding  by  scientific  men  during  late  years, 
shows  that  the  importance  of  the  matter  has  been  somewhat 
realized.  But  even  yet  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of 
ignorance  on  the  matter,  for  there  are  many  who  appear  to 
think  that  so  long  as  an  animal  or  bird  gets  plenty  of  food, 
that  is  all  that  the  owner  need  care  about ;  but  this  disregard 
to  the  kind  of  food  so  given,  to  its  effect  upon  the  birds 
themselves,  and  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  labour, 


212  Profitable  Poultiy  Keeping, 

is  most  injurious, for  the  saying,  ''What  is  one  man's  meat 
is  another  man's  poison,"  holds  good  so  far  as  fowls  are  con- 
cerned, as  much  as  it  does  for  human  beings.  Feeding  upon 
bad  or  unsuitable  food  must  always  be  very  harmful,  for,  as 
the  food  is  given  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  system  which 
goes  on  daily,  and  the  body  in  its  various  parts  is  really 
renewed  by  the  food  eaten,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  bad  food 
naturally  brings  on  diseases,  or  injures  the  system  by  failing 
to  supply  those  elements  that  are  necessary  to  it.  Eating 
to  repletion  by  fowls  is  generally  due  to  want  of  system  in 
feeding,  or  the  giving  of  food  that  is  tempting  to  the  appetite 
— probably  because  of  its  being  rich  in  its  nature — and 
this  means  that  the  food  will  have  certain  qualities  or 
elements  in  excess,  which  will,  in  their  turn,  develop  other 
qualities  in  the  birds,  and  thus  may  be  positively  injurious 
instead  of  beneficial.  There  is,  perhaps,  more  harm  done  by 
the  giving  of  rich  and  unsuitable  food  than  in  any  other  way, 
and  many  diseases  at  one  time  foreign  to  fowls  have  been 
thus  made  prevalent.  How  much  food  should  be  given  has 
already  been  dealt  with,  in  the  chapter  on  "  The  selection  of 
stock  birds,  "  and  we  need  not  repeat  it  here. 

It  will  be  seen  that  one  object  in  giving  food,  is  to  supply 
the  daily  waste  that  goes  on  in  the  system,  for,  if  the  matter 
thus  eliminated  is  not  replaced,  the  bird  will  soon  die  from 
exhaustion.  The  first  thing,  therefore,  is  to  supply  this 
waste,  but  if  only  this  is  done,  the  bird  will  be  just  kept 
alive,  no  more.  As  fowls  must  be  regarded  as  producing 
machines,  they  have  to  be  supplied  with  the  materials 
necessary  for  production,  or  it  cannot  take  place,  and  we  must 
have  regard  to  the  elements  needed  for  composing  whatever 
is  produced,  if  we  wish  to  do  it  with  the  greatest  ease,  and 
with  the  least  wear  and  tear  to  the  fowl.  But  in  addition  to 
this,  we  must  not  forget  the  conditions  under  which  the 
fowls  are  kept,  for,  the  activity  of  the  birds,  the  amount  of 


Food  and  Feeding,  213 

space  given  to  them,  and  the  kind  of  food  they  are  able  to 
obtain  for  themselves,  all  of  which  should  guide  the  selection 
of  that  given  to  them.  Many  persons  appear  to  think,  that 
if  they  give  the  same  food  to  fowls  in  confinement  that 
they  obtain  when  at  liberty,  all  will  be  well ;  but  such  is  not 
the  case.  Under  the  latter  circumstances  the  food  consists 
of  worms,  slugs,  and  grain,  the  two  former  chiefly,  and  we 
are  sure  that  if  the  same  amount  of  animal  food  was  given 
to  birds  in  a  limited  run,  that  is  obtained  by  those  at  liberty, 
it  would  result  in  disease  very  speedily.  Birds  with  plenty 
of  space  are  much  more  active  than  those  in  confinement, 
and  eliminate  surplus  matter  from  the  system  very  rapidly. 
As  this  elimination  means  exhaustion  of  fatty  matter  chiefly, 
because  exercise  causes  warmth,  which  is  the  result  of  a 
consumption  of  oil  in  the  body,  fat-forming  foods  can  with 
advantage  be  given  to  such  fowls ;  whereas,  on  the  other 
hand,  birds  that  are  in  confinement  do  not  consume  the  oil 
so  rapidly,  and  if  as  much  fat-forming  food  is  given  to  them, 
it  cannot  be  used,  but  will  clog  up  the  machine,  storing  the 
fat  by  laying  it  on  internally,  and  this  storage  will  be  found 
an  evil  instead  of  a  benefit.  The  great  chemist,  Liebig, 
used  to  say  that  all  fat  was  a  disease,  and  that  it  should  not 
be  allowed  under  any  circumstances;  but,  whilst  we  are 
not  able  to  accept  this  statement  fully,  for  it  must  be 
remembered  that  a  slight  reserve  of  fat  is  beneficial  as  a 
reservoir  of  heat,  yet  there  can  be  little  doubt,  that  if  this  fat 
is  not  consumed  before  any  more  is  stored  up,  and  one  layer 
piled  upon  another,  then  it  takes  the  form  of  disease.  It 
is  not  a  pleasant  thought,  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  a  fact,  that 
what  we  are  accustomed  to  consider  ripeness  or  tenderness,. 
is  but  the  first  stage  of  decay.  For  instance,  a  piece  of  meat 
may  be  rather  hard  if  cooked  soon  after  the  animal  has 
been  killed,  but  if  kept  a  few  days  will  become  tender.  We 
do  not  for  one  moment  wish   to  argue  that  such  "  tender  '* 

p 


214  Profitable  PoidUy  Keeping. 

meat  is  injurious,  for,  on  the  contrary,  if  not  tainted  it  is 
mucli  easier  to  digest,  and  better  in  every  way  than  newly- 
killed  meat ;  but  we  are  using  the  fact  simply  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  our  point,  namely,  that  fat,  unless  soon  consumed,  is 
of  itself  a  tendency  to  disease. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  already  said,  namely,  that  the 
conditions  under  which  the  birds  are  kept  must  be  considered, 
the  object  for  which  they  are  fed  needs  to  be  regarded  also. 
The  various  foods  have  many  different  qualities,  some  grains 
being  well  balanced,  and  others  having  an  excess  of  one  or 
two  elements.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to  consider  what  is  the 
object  in  view,  for  it  will  be  obviously  manifest  to  all,  that 
foods  which  may  be  useful  for  one  purpose  will  be  useless  for 
another.  Thus  where  eggs  are  to  be  produced,  for  which 
many  elements  are  needed,  chiefly  albumen  and  oil,  with  no 
one  element  greatly  in  excess,  then  a  well-balanced  food  is 
needed.  But  where  birds  are  being  fattened  for  killing, 
then  it  is  best  to  give  foods  which  contain  a  large  quantity 
of  flesh  or  fat-forming  qualities,  as  these  cause  the  plumpness 
which  is  so  desirable  in  table  fowls,  and  where  such  foods  are 
not  given,  then  if  the  birds  do  get  into  good  condition,  there 
must  be  a  large  waste  of  unneeded  qualities  before  this  can 
be  secured.  And  when  chickens  are  being  reared,  it  is  most 
desirable  that  they  should  have  food  which  will  develop  bone 
and  muscle,  not  merely  fat,  except  when  intended  to  be  early 
killed  for  the  table,  for  birds  fed  upon  flesh-forming  foods 
only,  have  not  strength  of  frame  to  support  the  flesh,  and 
though  they  may  thrive  for  a  time,  will  soon  die  off  for  want 
of  stamina.  Birds  forced  too  much  go  back  in  the  same  way, 
and,  therefore,  forcing  should  only  be  employed  with  birds 
intended  to  be  killed  early. 

What  is  required  in  the  food  given  to  fowls,  is  well 
described  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier  in  his  Poultry  book,  when  he 
2ays  : — "  To  supply  the  materials  required  for  the  growth  of 


Requisite  Constituents  of  Food,         2  t  5 

young  animals  and  for  the  formation  of  eggs,  as  well  as 
those  required  to  repair  the  waste  arising  from  the  move- 
ments of  the  living  body,  a  second  variety  of  food  is  required 
(in  addition  to  warmth-giving  foods),  for  the  starch  and  other 
substances  before  enumerated  cannot  supply  these  wants. 
Substances  possessing  this  power  are  termed  flesh-forming 
food.  The  most  important  are  the  gluten,  and  similar  sub- 
stances, existing  in  variable  quantities  in  different  grains ; 
in  large  proportions  in  the  varieties  of  pulse,  as  beans,  peas, 
&c. ;  and  in  the  materials  which  form  the  solid  parts  of  the 
flesh  of  animals,  of  eggs,  of  milk,  &c.  In  consequence  of 
these  substances  containing  the  element  nitrogen,  which  is 
wanting  in  the  other  varieties  of  food,  they  are  frequently 
termed  nitrogenous  foods ;  whilst  the  fat-forming  and 
warmth-giving  are  called  carbonaceous  foods.  The  mineral 
and  the  saline  substances  contained  in  the  bones,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  bodies  of  animals,  occur  in  larger  proportion  in 
the  bran  than  in  the  inner  part  of  the  grain.  A  due  supply 
of  bone-making  and  saline  materials  is  absolutely  requisite 
to  the  growth  of  a  healthy  animal ;  as  if  wanting  in  the 
food,  the  bones  become  soft  and  the  general  health  speedily 
fails."  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  what  is  required  in  a  well- 
balanced  food,  are  qualities  for  warmth-giving,  flesh-forming, 
fat,  or  oil,  and  bone-making ;  but,  as  there  are  few  foods  which 
are  so  balanced,  and  at  the  same  time  as  foods  are  required 
for  special  purposes,  such  as  chicken-rearing  and  fattening, 
only  those  foods  suitable  should  be  used,  or  a  combination 
of  them. 

By  examination  the  qualities  of  the  various  foods  have 
been  abundantly  proved.  If  we  take  barley,  one  of  the  com- 
monest grains  given  to  poultry,  we  find  that  it  contains  a 
very  small  quantity  of  fat  or  oil,  has  IB  per  cent,  of  flesh- 
forming  properties,  h^\  per  cent,  of  warmth-giving,  and  4 
per  cent,  of  bone-making  substances.     It  is,  therefore,  most 

p  2 


2i6  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

suitable  for  rearing  purposes,  and  for  Qgg  production,  though 
in  cold  weather  some  food  with  more  fat  in  it  should  be 
given,  so  as  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  this  respect ;  but 
in  summer  this  is  not  necessary,  and  then  barley  is  one  of 
the  best  foods  we  have  for  the  purposes  named,  whether 
■whole  or  ground.  If  used  in  the  latter  vfay,  care  must  be 
taken  to  have  the  meal  good,  pure,  and  freshly  ground,  for 
often  it  is  made  of  inferior  grain,  or  the  good  meal  is  mixed 
with  some  other  stuff  to  cheapen  it.  The  pure  can 
easily  be  told,  as  it  is  rough,  and  there  is  not  much  fine  dust 
about  it. 

We  come  next  to  oats,  which  are,  perhaps,  the  best 
balanced  of  all  the  grains,  having  6  per  cent,  of  fat  or 
oil,  15  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming,  47  per  cent,  of  warmth- 
giving,  and  2  per  cent,  of  bone-making  properties.  The  husk 
or  fibre  is  extremely  great,  being  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
Oats  are  not,  however,  very  much  used,  as  only  the  best 
kinds  are  relished  by  the  fowls,  and  these  are  somewhat 
expensive.  Poor  kinds,  such  as  are  known  as  long  or  Tartar 
oats,  are  not  good  food,  and  contain  more  husk  than  anything 
else,  which,  though  good  in  its  place  and  in  proper  quantities, 
is  not  of  much  use.  Provided  the  best  oats  are  ground  up, 
husks  and  all,  they  make  an  admirable  food  ;  but  we  have 
commonly  found  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  those  ground 
oats,  and  millers  do  not  appear  willing  to  take  the  trouble 
involved  in  the  making  of  this  meal,  especially  as  so  little  is 
used.  Oatmeal  is  of  a  different  nature  to  either  whole  or 
ground  oats,  for  the  process  it  undergoes  on  the  kiln,  and 
the  removal  of  the  husk,  gives  it  different  qualities.  It  is, 
however,  splendid  for  chickens,  and  for  fattening  purposes, 
and  a  fowl  fed  upon  it  makes  splendid  eating. 

The  chief  of  all  the  grains,  wheat,  is  not  much  used  for 
fowls,  except  on  farms  where  there  is  plenty  on  hand,  for  it 
is  an  expensive  food.     There  are,  however,  large  quantities  of 


.  Grain  Food,  217 

shrunken  wheat,  the  screenings  from  the  better  and  perfect 
grain,  used ;  and  also  the  smaller  and  inferior  samples. 
The  best  contains  3  per  cent,  of  fat,  12  per  cent,  of  flesh- 
forming,  70  per  cent,  of  warmth-giving,  and  2  per  cent,  of 
bone-making  properties,  with  very  little  husk  or  fibre,  and 
it  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  best  winter  foods  for  general 
purposes,  though  not  suitable  for  fattening.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  many  of  our  readers  to  learn  that  the  small 
wUeat,  or  screenings,  is,  as  a  rule,  better  for  poultry  feeding 
than  the  best  quality  of  grain,  as  it  is  richer  in  flesh-forming 
qualities  than  is  the  other.  When  ground  up  for  poultry 
feeding,  the  meal  so  made  should  be  mixed  with  some  other 
kind,  such  as  barley  meal  or  ground  oats,  as  it  is  rather  too 
stiff  and  pasty  when  the  water  is  added  to  it,  if  given  alone, 
but  if  so  mixed  this  will  be  prevented. 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  is  a  food  which  has  always  been 
employed  in  this  country,  chiefly  because  of  its  cheapness, 
for  it  is  undoubtedly,  or  has  been,  the  cheapest  of  all  grains. 
It  has  more  fat  or  oil  than  any  other,  namely,  8  per  cent.  ; 
it  has  also  12  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming,  65  per  cent,  of 
warmth-giving,  and  1  per  cent,  of  bone-making  qualities  ;  so 
that  its  tendency  is  to  lay  on  fat,  and  the  want  of  bone-form- 
ing substances  makes  it  by  no  means  a  well-balanced  food, 
except  for  fattening  purposes.  The  free  or  exclusive  use  of 
it  often  does  harm,  as  it  promotes  the  formation  of  internal 
fat,  which  soon  checks  laying,  and,  if  long-continued,  induces 
apoplexy  and  probably  diseases  of  the  internal  organs.  It  is, 
however,  an  admirable  fattening  food,  but,  when  used  for 
this  purpose,  should  be  ground  and  swelled  with  scalding 
water  and  fed  in  alternation  with  whole  corn  or  some  other 
grain.  It  is  admirable  for  feeding  whole  to  all  kinds  of  poul- 
try for  the  night  feed,  especially  in  cold  weather,  as  it  digests 
slowly  and  keeps  them  warm  all  night.  Corn  or  cornmeal 
should  only  be  given  to  laying  fowls  in  cold  weather,  and  even 


2 1 8  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

then  ought  to  be  accompanied  by  three  or  four  times  its  bulk 
of  other  kinds  of  grain  or  meal,  and  it  should  not  be  fed  too 
freely  to  birds  in  confinement.  All  this  may  appear  to  be  a 
strong  condemnation  of  it,  yet  it  is  no  more  than  necessity 
requires,  and  the  undoubted  value  of  the  grain  in  some 
respects,  makes  such  a  condemnation  all  the  more  needful. 

The  food  most  used  on  the  continent  of  Europe  for  fowls 
is  buckwheat,  which  is  a  most  admirable  food  for  laying  birds. 
It  contains  11  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  of  the  other  properties, 
\\  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming,  54  per  cent,  of  warmth-giving, 
and  2  per  cent,  of  bone-making  substances.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  that  the  fattening  property  is  small,  but  the  other 
qualities  and  its  stimulating  nature,  make  it  specially  suitable 
for  laying  fowls,  and  it  is  equally  so  whether  whole  or 
ground.  If  ground,  the  husk  should  not  be  taken  from  it, 
for  though  this  does  not  contain  much  nutriment,  it  prevents 
the  finer  meal  becoming  stifi"  and  pasty,  which  it  would  be 
very  much  inclined  to  do  were  it  absent. 

All  kinds  of  pulse,  such  as  peas,  beans,  and  tares,  are  very 
strong  in  flesh-forming  substances,  having  2  per  cent,  of  fat 
or  oil,  23 J  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming,  48  per  cent,  of  warmth- 
giving,  and  2^  per  cent,  of  bone-forming  qualities.  These 
are  not  suitable  for  fowls  if  given  alone,  as  they  are  too 
stimulating,  and  the  excess  of  flesh-forming  qualities  causes 
a  hardening  of  the  muscular  fibres,  and  the  flesh  produced  is 
too  hard  for  eating.  In  fattening  fowls  for  table  use,  these 
are  found  useful  to  mix  with  other  foods,  but  alone  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  the  reason  already  given. 

Bice  consists  almost  entirely  of  warmth-giving  qualities, 
starch  forming  the  chief  of  all.  Of  fat  or  oil  there  is  but  a 
trace,  of  flesh-forming  substances  but  6 J  per  cent.,  and  of 
bone-forming  qualities  only  J  per  cent.,  whilst  of  the  warmth- 
giving  qualities  there  is  75^  per  cent.  On  this  account  it  is 
only  suitable  for  birds  being  fed  for  the  table,  and  layers 


Food  for  Young  Chickens,  219 

kept  on  it  do  not  thrive  at  all,  whilst  for  chickens  not  intended 
for  early  killing,  it  is  one  of  the  worst  foods  possible.  It 
should,  therefore,  not  bo  used  except  for  the  special  purpose 
already  named  by  us.  Dari,  millet,  hemp,  and  other  seeds 
are  all  useful  for  young  chickens,  but  otherwise  are  not  suit- 
able for  fowls.  Although  not  really  a  poultry  food,  in  the 
sense  that  birds  can  be  fed  on  it  alone,  bonemeal  is  a  most 
useful  thing  for  mixing  with  such  foods  as  are  deficient  in 
bone-forming  substances.  For  chicken  rearing  it  is  invalu- 
able, and  is  a  great  preventive  of  leg  weakness,  also  being 
very  good  for  adult  fowls  occasionally.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  purchase  the  right  kind,  made  from  fresh  bones,  and  not 
the  scrapings  from  the  bone-handle  makers,  which  are  of  no 
use  whatever. 

Fowls  of  all  kinds  and  ages  should  have  access  only  to  pure 
water.  Barnyard  leachings,  water  from  the  kitchen  sink,  or 
m  villages  that  flowing  in  gutters  and  alley- ways  are  all  un- 
wholesome and  liable  to  cause  disease.  Stagnant  water  of 
any  kind  is  bad.  Fowls  should  always  be  supplied  with  fresh, 
pure  water,  and  the  drinking  vessels  should  be  easily  acces- 
sible for  confined  fowls  in  the  runs  or  houses.  The  drinking 
fountains  before  mentioned,  which  are  of  tin,  galvanized  iron 
or  earthenware,  are  excellent  devices  provided  they  are  emp- 
tied, cleansed  and  rinsed  out  whenever  filled. 


220  Projltable  PoiUtry  Keepings 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


EARLY   EGGS   AND    CHICKENS. 


Early  Eggs  and  Chickens  bring  High  Prices— How  to  Secure  Tbem. — Pullets  to 
be  Used— Hens  to  be  Mated  Earl} — Good  Housiug  and  FeediDg. 

The  first  object  of  every  poultry  keeper,  who  wishes  to 
succeed  in  his  business,  is  to  have  his  produce  ready  for  market 
when  the  commodity  is  scarce,  as,  of  course,  he  can  get  a 
much  higher  price  then  than  at  any  other  time.  This  holds 
good  in  everything,  and  if  we  compare  the  cost  of  articles 
in  season  and  out  of  season,  it  will  be  seen  how  large  the 
margin  is  to  pay  for  the  additional  labour  and  trouble 
which  must  be  expended  in  order  to  obtain  the  articles 
out  of  due  time.  That  this  labour  and  trouble  is  needed, 
no  one  need  doubt  for  a  moment,  and  the  getting  of  early 
eggs  and  chickens  demands  it,  but  the  profit  far  more  than 
comjiensates.  Really  fresh  eggs  can  be  sold,  in  many  towns, 
from  November  to  March  at  forty-five  to  sixty  cents  a 
dozen,  and  fine,  plump  chickens  vary  from  twenty  to 
thirty-five  cents  a  pound  until  May,  the  highest  prices  being 
obtained  in  Eastern  cities.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that 
these  are  the  prices  actually  obtained  by  the  producer, 
for,  unfortunately,  middle-men  take  far  too  large  a  share 
of  the  profits ;  but,  wherever  there  is  a  large  permanent 
population,  customers  can  always  be  found  for  really  fresh 
eggs  and  plump  home-fed  chickens,  and  at  the  best  prices. 


Early  Eggs  and  Chickens,  221 

There  are  also  large  dairy  companies  and  hotels  ready  to 
contract  for  taking  fiesh  Qgg^  all  the  year  round  at  good 
paying  figures  ;  but  in  every  case,  whether  the  sales  be  made 
privately  or  not,  there  must  be  the  certainty  of  the  eggs 
being  fresh.  Ordinary  (so-called)  new-laid  eggs,  as  sold  in 
the  shops,  are  generally  a  week  or  ten  days  old  at  least, 
because  they  are  only  sent  to  market  once  a  week,  so  that 
probably  the  freshest  ones  were  laid  two  or  three  days  before 
that,  and  others  are  still  older.  This  uncertainty  makes 
eggs  really  new-laid  in  constant  demand. 

A  very  frequent  complaint  amongst  poultry  keepers,  is 
that  they  can  get  any  number  of  eggs  at  the  time  when 
they  are  plentiful,  and  therefore  cheap,  but  v^^hen  eggs  are 
scarce  they  get  few  or  none.  In  many  instances  this  is  due 
to  the  unsuitability  of  the  breed ;  but  we  need  not  say  more 
on  this  question,  as  it  has  been  dealt  with  very  fully  in  a 
previous  chapter.  What  is  wanted  is  to  keep  only  those 
birds  known  as  prolific  layers,  such  as  Leghorns,  Minorcas, 
Houdans,  Black  Hamburgs,  Langshans  or  Plymouth  Kocks. 
Then,  again,  there  is  the  matter  of  housing  and  feeding,  both 
of  which  are  most  important,  and  should  have  the  greatest 
attention.  We  need  not,  however,  say  more  on  this  matter 
either,  as  we  have  dealt  with  both  these  questions  before. 
There  are  people  who  have  the  right  kind  of  birds,  who 
house  and  feed  them  well,  and  yet  who  cannot  obtain  eggs 
very  early  in  the  year,  and,  of  course,  cannot  have  early 
chickens,  the  entire  cause  being  that  their  birds  are  too 
old.  Birds  above  two  years  old  do  not  commence  laying 
until  the  end  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March,  no 
matter  how  good  layers  they  may  be,  and  if  only  these  be 
used,  then  neither  early  eggs  nor  chickens  can  be  expected, 
and  certainly  will  not  be  obtained. 

Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  to  obtain  early  eggs,  only 
young  birds,  that  is  pullets  of  the   first  or  second  year,  must 


22  2  Profitable  Poidtry  Keeping, 

be  used.  Birds  of  the  various  breeds  already  named,  if 
hatched  in  March  and  April,  will  begin  to  lay  at  latest  in 
September,  October,  or  November,  and  will  continue  to  do 
so  right  through  the  winter.  At  first  the  eggs  will  be 
small,  but  will  gradually  improve  in  this  respect,  and 
pullets  of  the  previous  year  will,  if  well  housed,  begin  to 
lay  about  December,  and  their  eggs  will  be  large  and  well 
formed ;  so  that  the  matter,  if  carefully  managed,  is  not 
very  difficult,  and  a  constant  supply  of  eggs  can  be  obtained. 
It  is  of  no  use  expecting  that  May  or  June  hatched  birds 
will  commence  to  lay  before  the  spring ;  they  may  do  so, 
if  the  autumn  and  early  winter  are  very  favourable ;  but 
that,  of  course,  is  not  a  matter  that  can  be  arranged. 
January  and  February  hatched  birds  are  too  early  to  be 
used  as  layers,  and  do  not,  as  a  rule,  answer  for  this  purpose, 
as  they  begin  about  August,  fall  into  a  moult  a  little  later 
on,  and  are  very  uncertain  in  their  produce  during  the 
winter.  For  eggs,  therefore,  w^e  prefer  birds  hatched  in 
March  and  April,  and  not  more  than  two  years  old.  In  a 
well-arranged  yard,  half  the  stock  of  layers  will  be  bred 
each  year,  and  half  will  be  killed  off  annually.  This  plan 
we  have  seen  adopted  in  many  yards,  and  can  strongly 
recommend  it. 

Those  who  wish  to  have  early  chickens  must  follow  the 
same  rule.  The  pens  should  be  mated  together  early  in 
November,  for  the  earliest  hatches,  and  later  in  the  month 
for  those  not  required  so  soon.  By  using  pullets  of  the 
first  year  for  the  former,  and  those  twelve  months  older 
for  the  latter,  with  young  and  vigorous  cockerels,  fertile  eggs 
may  be  expected  within  a  few  days  of  the  birds  being  mated, 
and  thus  a  succession  of  chickens  produced,  to  be  ready  at 
the  time  when  they  are  scarce  and  dear.  Of  course  the 
number  of  pullets  to  each  cock  must  be  regulated,  and 
phould  not  exceed  half-a-dozen  at   the   outside,    and  that 


Management  of  Pullets,  223 

number  only  for  the  most  vigorous  breeds.  The  bh'ds  will 
require  to  be  housed  comfortably  and  fed  well,  and  in 
winter  time  the  eggs  should  be  gathered  as  soon  after 
they  are  laid  as  is  convenient,  for  they  are  apt  to  get  frosted 
in  the  nest  during  severe  weather ;  this,  as  we  all  know,  is 
a  thing  to  be  avoided  if  possible. 

There  will,  doubtless,  be  some  who  object  to  this  plan  of 
using  pullets  for  breeding  purposes.  Chickens,  they  say, 
bred  from  immature  birds  never  do  very  well,  and  this 
objection  is  perfectly  correct  so  far  as  ordinary  fowls  are 
concerned,  as  doing  this  gradually  weakens  and  redrces 
the  size  of  any  race  of  fowls.  For  birds  that  it  is  intended 
to  rear  to  maturity,  we  do  not  like  breeding  from  pullets 
of  the  first  year,  and,  therefore,  would  always  breed  the 
laying  fowls  from  birds  of  the  second  year,  and  also  those 
to  lay  the  eggs  from  which  the  early  chicks  are  expected. 
This  simply  means  tliat  if  last  spring  we  bred  some 
laying  pullets,  and  also  some  specially  suitable  for  table 
fowls,  from  two-year-old  hens,  we  would  use  the  former  to 
produce  eggs  for  sale,  and  the  latter  to  produce  eggs  from 
which  we  would  hatch  the  chickens  for  early  killing.  As 
the  latter  are  not  intended  to  be  reared,  the  breeding  from 
immature  birds  can  do  little  or  no  harm,  and  this  is  the 
only  way  by  which  very  early  chickens  can  be  obtained. 
It  is  not  natural  for  fowls  to  breed  until  March  or  April, 
when  pullets  are  about  twelve  months  old,  so  that,  if 
we  break  through  the  rules  of  nature,  we  must  be  prepared 
to  spend  care  and  trouble  in  order  to  obtain  what  wo 
require,  but  if  we  do  this,  we  may  reasonably  hope  that  the 
result  will  far  more  than  repay  us. 


2  24  Profitable  PoiUtry  Keeping, 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE   PREPARATION   OF    TABLE   FOWLS. 

Superiority  of  French  System— Breeds  of  Fowls  Suitable  for  Fattening — Methods 
— Duration  of  Process— Food — Fattening  and  Cramming  Machines — Cram- 
ming hy  Hand— Killing  Fowls — Dressing  in  France — Shaping-boards — Advan- 
tage of  Dressing — Caponising. 

The  question  of  preparing  fowls  for  the  table,  is  not  one 
that  can  be  neglected,  even  by  those  poultry  keepers  whose 
object  is  primarily  eggs,  as  they  have  many  birds  which, 
if  fattened  and  killed  off,  would  sell  profitably ;  but,  unfor- 
tunately, the  question  of  preparing  for  the  table  is  very 
little  understood,  and  there  is  very  great  room  for  improve- 
ment in  this  respect.  The  great  superiority  of  the  French 
dressed  poultry,  which  is  evident  to  all  who  visit  Paris,  is 
due  to  three  things  :  first,  the  greater  care  taken  in  breed- 
ing table  fowls;  second,  the  capital  methods  of  fattening; 
and,  third,  the  splendid  way  in  whicli  the  birds  are  trussed 
when  offered  for  sale.  In  our  American  markets  we  find  a 
different  state  of  things  altogether.  There  is,  at  the  outset, 
little  or  no  care  taken  with  respect  to  the  breeds — except, 
perhaps,  in  one  or  two  districts ;  the  birds  are,  as  a  rule, 
picked  up  out  of  the  farmyard  and  killed  at  once,  without  any 
preparatory  feeding  whatever;  and  they  are,  as  a  rule,  simply 
plucked,  not  even  drawn  (much  less  dressed  and  trussed, 
except  in  New  England),  and  with  head  and  feet  on.  We 
hope,  however,  that  a  cliange  for  the  better  will  soon  take 


The  Preparation  of  Table  Fowls.  225 

place  ;  and  there  are  signs  that  lead  us  to  hope  that  a  consider- 
able improvement  will  be  found  within  a  few  years.  Prejudice 
is  hard  to  kill,  and  it  may  be  that  the  French  plan  of  trussing 
will  never  be  adopted  in  this  country ;  but,  if  a  system  of  fatten- 
ing becomes  general,  that  will  be  a  considerable  step  in  advance. 
We  have  already  pointed  out  in  previous  chapters,  the  kinds 
of  fowls  most  suitable  for  table  purposes,  therefore  it  is  not 
necessary  to  enumerate  them  here  ;  but  we  may  mention 
again,  that  those  birds  which  have  the  meat  upon  the  breast 


Fig.  13.— Chiisty's  Fattening  Pen. 


and  not  upon  the  thighs,  are  generally  the  best  for  fattening. 
The  question  we  have  now  to  deal  with,  is  that  of  the  fatten- 
ing of  the  fowls,  and  the  methods  adopted  in  France  are 
worthy  of  being  fully  described  here.  The  commonest  plan 
in  France  is  to  keep  the  chickens  in  square  pens,  just 
sufficiently  large  to  allow  them  moving  room,  but  no  more. 
In  some  instances  a  room  is  completely  lined  out  with  these 
pens,  and,  when  all  the  pens  are  full,  and  feeding  time  is  on, 
then  the  scene  is  a  very  busy  one.     The  partitions  are  made 


226  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

of  wood,  and  the  front  half  of  the  floors  of  the  same 
material ;  hut  the  back  half  is  formed  of  wire  rods,  so  that 
the  droppings  can  fall  into  sliding  trays,  fall  of  earth,  provided 
below  each  row  of  pens  for  this  purpose.  The  fronts  are 
formed  either  of  wire  rods  or  of  wood,  with  an  oblong  hole 
just  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  bird's  head  to  come 
through  for  feeding  purposes,  as  is  shown  in  fig.  13, 
which  is  an  appliance  for  fattening  twenty  -  four  birds 
introduced  by  Messrs.  Christie  and  Co.  If  there  is  only 
one  row  of  pens,  then  the  tops  are  made  to  open,  for  the  put- 
ting in  and  taking  out  of  the  birds ;  but  when  two  or  more 
rows  are  placed  one  above  another,  then  the  fronts  are  made 
removable.  The  rooms  in  which  the  pens  are  kept  are  always 
warm  and  well  ventilated,  but  dark,  as  the  chicks  are 
found  to  be  much  more  contented  than  when  kept  in  the 
lightc  Thorough  cleanliness  is  observed,  both  in  the  pens 
and  the  feeding-troughs,  which  are  placed  in  front  of  the 
cages,  and  the  birds  are  fed  four  or  five  times  a  day.  Such 
a  house  as  this  is  easily  fitted  up,  as  both  wood  and  wire  are 
'Cheap,  or  the  small  fattening  pens  can  be  made  in  sets  of 
three,  six,  or  twelve,  by  any  handy  joiner.  The  compart- 
ments should  be  fifteen  inches  from  back  to  front,  twelve 
inches  wide,  and  eighteen  inches  high,  which  will  be  large 
enough  for  all  ordinary  sized  fowls.  The  trays  must  not  be 
omitted,  and  whenever  the  pens  are  made  more  than  one  tier 
high,  each  row  had  better  be  made  separate,  as  this  will  greatly 
facilitate  cleaning. 

The  period  in  which  fowls  may  be  fattened  varies  very  con- 
siderably, but  about  three  weeks,  if  properly  managed,  should 
bring  them  into  capital  condition.  Some  of  the  dead  fowls 
shown  at  the  French  shows,  are  fattened  for  a  much  longer 
period,  and  we  have  heard  that  a  prize  pair  of  birds  had 
been  in  preparation  no  less  than  nine  weeks,  but  for  ordinary 
purposes  the  period  we  have  named  is  quite  sufficient.     The 


Fattening,  227 

food  given  should  consist  of  indian,  barleymcal,  oatmeal,  or 
buckwheat  meal,  all  fresh  and  sweet,  and  mixed  witli  skim- 
milk.  Any  of  these  meals  may  be  given  separately,  but  the 
better  plan  is  to  have  a  mixture  made  of  equal  parts  of  each, 
to  which  a  little  fat,  such  as  lard,  or  dripping  from  meat,  is 
added  just  before  the  milk.  It  is  wise  to  boil  the  milk  first, 
and  mix  the  food  stiff,  but  not  too  pasty — crumbly  moist  is 
the  best  definition  we  can  give  of  it.  This  should  be  supplied 
to  the  birds  warm,  and  when  they  appear  satisfied  what  is  left 
in  the  troughs  should  be  taken,  made  into  finger-pieces  shaped 
like  a  bolus,  and  after  dipping  these  in  milk  one  or  two  may 
be  put  down  the  throat  of  each  fowl,  or,  if  the  crop  of  any  one 
is  found  to  be  unfilled,  as  mauy  as  will  fill  it  up.  There  are 
some  poultry  fatteners  who  do  not  allow  the  birds  to  eat 
anything  naturally,  but  cram  them  entirely  in  the  way 
described.  This  is,  however,  unnecessary,  and  entails  more 
labour  than  the  plan  we  have  recommended,  without  any 
corresponding  advantage.  Two  or  three  pounds  can  be  added 
to  the  weight  of  a  large  chicken  in  about  three  weeks  by 
this  method,  and  the  flesh  will  be  of  the  finest  colour  and 
texture,  more  succulent,  and  in  every  way  superior  to  that 
of  the  fowls  ordinarily  purchased  in  the  poulterers'  shops.  A 
demand  for  such  birds  will  soon  grow  up,  and  the  prices 
obtained  will  repay  all  the  trouble  and  labour  expended. 
We  know  instances  where  orders  cannot  be  half  supplied — 
orders  from  private  families,  and  at  very  good  prices  indeed, 
and  a  little  effort  would  secure  the  same  result  in  most 
places. 

Another  system  of  fattening  in  France,  is  by  means  of  cir- 
cular and  revolving  cages,  some  consisting  of  over  two  hun- 
dred compartments,  and  with  these  are  cramming  machines. 
The  cage  revolves  upon  a  centre  pivot,  and  the  birds  are 
fastened  into  the  compartments  by  straps  fastened  to  their 
legs.     The  cramming  apparatus  is  charged  with  liquid  food, 


228  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

made  of  buckwheat  meal  mixed  with  milk,  to  which  a  little 
suet  or  fat  is  added.  This  is  fitted  into  a  square  cage  in 
which  the  feeder  stands,  and  in  the  larger  machines  he  can 
elevate  this  cage  to  any  tier  he  wishes  to  be  at.  As  soon  as 
the  revolving  cylinder  is  turned,  and  one  of  the  compartments 
thus  brought  opposite  to  him,  he  seizes  hold  of  the  inmate 
with  the  left  hand,  deftly  opening  its  beak  at  the  same  time, 
and  holding  in  his  right  hand  the  brass  nozzle  of  an  india- 
rubber  tube  connected  with  the  machine,  inserts  this  into  the 
throat  of  the  bird,  then  with  his  foot  presses  a  treadle,  and 
sufficient  of  the  liquid  for  one  meal  is  forced  into  the  crop  of 
the  fowl.  The  process  is  repeated  with  each  bird  four  or  five 
times  a  day,  and  they  are  in  prime  condition  in  three  or  four 
weeks.  Many  think  the  process  a  cruel  one,  but  we  have 
watched  it  repeatedly,  and  can  vouch  for  the  fact  that  the 
fowls  are  always  eager  for  their  turn  to  come. 

In  some  parts  of  Sussex,  England,  and  in  France  also, 
really  the  same  system  is  adopted,  though  the  method 
employed  is  rather  varied.  Cages  line  the  room,  in  the 
centre  of  which  an  attendant  is  seated  on  a  bench,  having 
a  cramming  machine  with  a  short  nozzle  pointing  towards 
him.  Another  attendant  hands  him  a  fowl,  into  the  mouth 
of  which  he  inserts  the  nozzle  of  the  crammer,  and,  pressing 
a  treadle  with  his  foot,  the  food  is  injected  into  it.  Mean- 
while, another  bird  has  been  brought  and  is  exchanged 
for  the  one  fed,  so  that  no  time  is  wasted.  We  have  seen 
it  stated,  that  a  couple  of  active  men  can  feed  two  hundred 
birds  in  an  hour  in  this  way. 

Where  cramming  is  preferred,  and  we  ourselves  see  no 
objection  whatever  to  it,  perhaps  the  best  plan  is  that 
adopted  by  Madame  Aillerot,  a  great  French  poultry 
breeder  and  fattener,  famous  for  the  excellence  of  her 
stock,  and  who  has  for  several  years  taken  first  prize  for 
dressed  poultry  at  the  great  Paris  exhibitions.     Buckwheat 


Best  Mode  of  Killing,  229 

meal,  suet,  and  milk  are  made  up  into  patons,  as  the 
finger-pieces  are  called.  The  paste  is  first  well  worked 
together  until  it  is  very  smooth,  and  with  a  dish  or 
basket  of  these  patons  the  round  is  commenced.  The 
head  of  the  bird  to  be  fed  is  taken  into  the  left  hand,  the 
beak  opened,  and  three  or  four  of  the  crams,  which  are 
first  dipped  in  milk,  put  down  the  throat.  Birds  are  so 
fed  about  four  times  a  day,  and  the  only  drink  given  is 
milk,  the  result  being  that  the  flesh  is  beautifully  white 
and  tender  when  killed.  But,  whatever  be  the  system 
adopted,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  carefully  watch  the 
birds,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  seen  to  be  losing  their 
appetite,  or  to  show  signs  of  going  off — for  if  the  fattening 
is  too  much  prolonged  the  fowls  begin  to  lose  flesh  again, 
instead  of  gaining  it — they  must  be  killed  forthwith. 

Much  depends  upon  the  manner  of  killing  fowls  for  the 
table,  and  the  appearance  of  the  birds  when  dressed  will  be 
largely  affected  in  this  way.  But  no  matter  what  system 
is  adopted,  the  birds  should  be  starved  for  fifteen  or  eighteen 
hours  before  being  killed,  so  that  all  the  food  in  the  crop  may 
be  consumed.  Often  we  see  chickens  offered  for  sale  with  th 
crops  full  of  grain,  the  result  of  which  is  that  it  soon  begins 
to  sour,  and  the  fowls  lose  that  fresh  smell  which  they  would 
otherwise  have  retained  for  a  considerable  time  longer.  The 
ordinary  plan  is  to  dislocate  the  neck,  in  which  case  death 
is  instantaneous,  as  the  spinal  nerves,  arteries,  and  veins 
are  all  torn  asunder,  the  head  remaining  attached  to  the 
body  only  by  the  skin.  The  disadvantage  of  this  plan  is 
that  if  the  fowls  are  hung  up,  there  is  a  large  accumulation 
of  blood  in  the  neck,  which  tends  to  decomposition  ;  but 
this  can  be  easily  avoided  by  making  a  deep  cut  in  the 
roof  of  the  bird's  mouth,  when  the  blood  will  flow  freely 
away.  Then  there  is  the  simpler  method  of  chopping 
the  head  off,   but   to  both  plans   some   persons   object  on 

Q 


230  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

account  of  tlie  movements  of  the  fowls,  which  continue  for 
some  minutes  after  the  neck  is  broken  or  cut.  These 
movements  are  due  to  muscular  irritability,  and  the  bird 
is  not  sensible  of  any  pain ;  but,  if  objected  to,  the  body  can 
be  put  into  a  basket  until  after  the  movements  have  ceased. 
We  think,  however,  that  this  is  a  feeling  soon  overcome,  and 
that  the  best  plan  is  to  tie  the  fowl  by  the  legs,  and  hang  it 
to  a  hook  in  the  wall;  then  break  the  neck,  and  make  a 
cut  so  that  the  blood  can  run  away.  Death  can  also  be 
caused  by  cutting  the  throat,  in  which  case  it  is  imme- 
diate, or  by  simply  passing  a  sharp  knife  through  the  roof 
of  the  mouth  to  the  brain,  but  the  plan  we  have  recom- 
mended will  be  found  the  simplest  and  most  effective  in  all 
respects. 

One  of  the  reasons  mentioned  by  us  for  the  great  supe- 
riority of  French  fowls  as  seen  in  the  markets,  lies  in 
the  dressing  of  the  birds  after  they  are  killed.  The  GaUic 
poulterers  have  reduced  this  to  the  nature  of  a  science, 
for  it  is  recognized  that  the  method  of  preparation  has 
much  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  the  birds,  both  when 
offered  for  sale  and  when  on  the  table.  The  fowls  are 
plucked  immediately  they  are  killed — not  left  with  the  feathers 
on  them,  as  is  too  often  the  case  here  —  and  are  then 
laid  upon  shaping-boards  with  their  backs  upward.  One 
of  these  boards  is  simply  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  about  the 
same  width  as  the  fowl  to  be  placed  upon  it,  having  a  block 
at  each  end,  one  to  support  the  neck  and  the  other  the 
rump,  and  thus  the  bird  is  kept  perfectly  level.  Great  care 
is  taken  to  see  that  the  bird  is  manipulated  before  it  gets 
cold  and  set,  and  this  is  first  done  by  bending  in  the  rib 
bones,  after  which  the  knee  is  pressed  into  the  back,  the 
breast  forced  inwards,  and  the  legs  fastened  over  the  breast 
so  as  to  keep  it  in  its  place.  The  fowl  is  then  placed  upon 
the   shaping-board  back   upwards,  and  a  wet  linen    cloth 


Dressing  Fowls.  231 

fastened  tightly  down  over  it,  by  means  of  tapes  tied  round  the 
bottom  board.  When  kept  in  this  way  for  twelve  hours,  the 
flesh  is  firm  and  the  whole  appearance  shapely,  with  no 
loose  flabby  flesh  to  repel  the  sight.  This  shaping  of  the 
birds  accounts  for  the  great  difference  between  Frencli  fowls 
and  our  own,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  trouble 
involved  is  amply  repaid.  The  method  offers  other  advan- 
tages, as  well  as  that  of  mere  appearance.  When  the  cook 
gets  the  bird,  she  cuts  the  string  which  fastens  the  legs,  for 
the  shaping-boards  and  cloths  are  not  sold  with  the  fowl, 
and  forces  these  down  again,  which  brings  the  meat  out  on 
the  breast  without  the  bone  rising.  When  on  the  table,  the 
carver  does  not  meet  with  the  pieces  of  bone  which  obstruct 
the  passage  of  the  knife  in  an  English  dressed  fowl,  and 
it  is  a  pleasure  to  be  able  to  cut  slice  after  slice  off  the 
breast.  This  is  one  reason  why  French  fowls  appear  to 
have  so  much  meat  on  them,  but,  it  is  also  a  fact,  that  they 
are  fed  up  to  greater  weights  than  are  fowls  in  America. 
We  have  seen  a  statement,  that  at  one  of  the  great  Paris 
shows,  the  first  prize  pair  of  La  Fleche  fowls  weighed 
twenty  pounds,  plucked  and  dressed,  whilst  the  pullets  of 
the  same  breed  turned  the  scale  at  sixteen  pounds  the  pair. 
It  may  not  be  possible  to  adopt  the  French  system,  as 
just  described,  in  its  entirety  in  this  country,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  we  do  not  see  why  a  portion  of  it  might  not  be 
grafted  on  to  our  own  plan,  or  plans.  For  instance,  there 
would  be  no  difficulty,  either  as  regards  expense  or  trouble, 
in  using  the  shaping-boards  and  cloths,  by  which  means 
the  birds  would  be  braced  up  and  made  shapely,  and  thus 
do  away  with  the  soft  appearance  which  is  so  objectionable. 
In  all  our  principal  markets  it  is  found  that  birds  well 
dressed  bring  more  money  than  those  sent  in  a  careless 
manner,  and  labour  spent  in  this  way  is  never  lost.     It  is 

Q  2 


232  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

customary  for  some  poulterers  to  break  the  breastbone 
of  fowls,  in  order  to  make  them  have  a  full  appearance,  but 
this  only  hides  bad  work  in  the  fattening  process,  and  it  is 
thoroughly  unnecessary,  when  the  birds  are  properly  fed 
before  killing.  It  is  also  a  source  of  annoyance  to  the 
carver,  preventing  slices  being  cut  off  the  breast  as  easily 
as  they  otherwise  would  be,  and  at  the  same  time  accounting 
for  the  ragged  appearance  of  the  cut,  when  laid  upon  the 
plate.  Properly  selected,  well  fattened,  and  carefully  dressed, 
there  is  no  need  for  such  a  practice  as  this,  and  the  sooner 
it  is  abandoned  the  better.  Prejudice  is  undoubtedly  hard 
to  kill,  but  it  is  not  impossible  to  overcome  it,  and  the 
benefit  to  both  producer  and  consumer  is  so  striking,  that 
it  would  not  be  long  before  prejudice  would  acknowledge  its 
error,  by  following  in  the  same  course. 

This  would  appear  to  be  a  suitable  opportunity  for  saying 
something  about  another  custom,  which  is  largely  adopted 
in  France,  but  which  has  never  become  very  general  in  this 
country,  namely,  that  of  caponising,  which  is  the  taking 
away  from  cockerels  the  power  of  reproduction,  by  the  doing 
of  which,  the  weight  of  the  birds,  and  the  tenderness  of  the 
flesh,  are  both  greatly  increased,  and  fowls  so  treated  are 
to  be  met  with  very  generally  all  over  the  Continent,  at  least 
in  those  districts  where  poultry  breeding  is  largely  practised. 
In  some  places  pullets  are  also  operated  upon,  for  a  young 
hen  that  has  never  laid,  is  regarded  as  daintier  than  any 
male  bird,  but,  as  a  rule,  these  are  fed  up  and  killed  before 
laying  has  commenced,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to  subject 
them  to  the  operation.  One  of  the  best  descriptions  of 
caponising  is  that  given  in  Tegetmeier's  Poultry  Book, 
which  is  of  itself  a  translation  from  a  French  treatise  by 
Mdlle.  Millet  Kobinet  :— 

VThe  instrument  employed  in  the  operation  should  be 


Capon  istng,  233 

very  sharp ;  a  surgeon's  small  operating-knife,  termed  a 
curved-pointed  bistoury,  is  far  better  than  an  ordinary  knife, 
as  it  makes  a  much  neater  wound,  and  so  increases  greatly 
the  chances  of  healing ;  or  a  curved-pointed  penknife  may 
be  used.  A  stout  needle  and  waxed  thread  are  also  requisite  ; 
a  small  curved  surgical  needle  will  be  found  much  more 
convenient  in  use  than  a  common  straight  one. 

"  It  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  two  persons  to 
perform  the  operation.  The  assistant  places  the  bird  on 
its  right  side  on  the  knees  of  the  person  who  is  about  to 
operate,  and  who  is  seated  in  a  chair  of  such  a  height  as 
to  make  his  thighs  horizontal.  The  back  of  the  bird  is 
turned  towards  the  operator,  and  the  right  leg  and  thigh 
held  firmly  along  the  body,  the  left  being  drawn  back 
towards  the  tail,  thus  exposing  the  left  flank,  where  the 
incision  has  to  be  made.  After  removing  the  feathers  the 
skin  is  raised  up,  just  behind  the  last  rib,  with  the  point 
of  the  needle,  so  as  to  avoid  wounding  the  intestines,  and 
an  incision  along  the  edge  of  the  last  rib  is  made  into 
the  cavity  of  the  body  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the 
introduction  of  the  finger.  If  any  portion  of  the  bowels 
escape  from  the  wound  it  must  be  carefully  returned.  The 
forefinger  is  then  introduced  into  the  cavity,  and  directed 
behind  the  intestines  towards  the  back,  somewhat  to  the  left 
side  of  the  middle  line  of  the  body. 

"  If  the  proper  position  is  gained  (which  is  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  an  inexperienced  operator,  especially  if  the  cock  is  of 
full  size),  the  finger  comes  into  contact  with  the  left  testicle, 
which  in  a  young  bird  of  four  months  is  rather  larger  than 
a  full- sized  horse-bean.  It  is  moveable,  and  apt  to  slip 
under  the  finger,  although  adhering  to  the  spine ;  when 
felt  it  is  to  be  gently  pulled  away  from  its  attachments 
with  the  finger  and  removed  through  the  wound — an  opera- 


234  Profitable  Potdtry  Keephtg. 

tion  whicli  requires  considerable  practice  and  facility  to 
perform  properly,  as  the  testicle  sometimes  slips  from 
under  the  finger  before  it  is  got  out,  and,  gliding  amongst 
the  intestines,  cannot  be  found  again  readily ;  it  may, 
however,  remain  in  the  body  of  the  animal  without  much 
inconvenience,  although  it  is  better  removed,  as  its  presence 
is  apt  to  excite  inflammation. 

*'  After  removing  the  left  testicle,  the  finger  is  again 
introduced,  and  the  right  one  sought  for  and  removed  in  a 
similar  manner.  It  is  readily  discovered,  as  its  situation 
is  alongside  of  the  former,  a  little  to  the  right  side  of  the 
body.  Afterwards  the  lips  of  the  wound  are  brought 
together  and  kept  in  contact  with  two  or  three  stitches 
with  the  waxed  thread.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to 
sew  up  the  wound  with  a  continuous  seam,  but  each  stitch 
should  be  perfectly  separate,  and  tied  distinctly  from  the 
others. 

'^In  making  the  stitches  great  care  should  be  taken; 
the  skin  should  be  raised  up  so  as  to  avoid  wounding  the 
intestines  with  the  needle,  or  including  even  the  slightest 
portion  of  them  in  the  thread — an  accident  that  would 
almost  inevitably  be  followed  by  the  death  of  the  animal. 

"After  the  operation  the  bird  had  better  be  placed  under 
a  coop  in  a  quiet  situation,  and  supplied  with  drink  and 
soft  food,  such  as  sopped  bread.  After  a  few  hours  it  is 
best  to  give  him  his  liberty,  if  he  can  be  turned  out  in 
some  quiet  place  removed  from  the  poultry-yard,  as,  if 
attacked  by  the  other  cocks,  the  healing  of  the  wound 
would  be  endangered. 

*'  After  the  operation  the  bird  should  not  be  permitted 
to  roost  on  a  perch,  as  the  exertion  of  leaping  up  would 
unquestionably  injure  the  wound  ;  it  should,  therefore,  at 
night  be  turned  into  a  room  where  it  is  obliged  to  rest  on 


After-T7xatmenz  of  Capons,  235 

tlie  floor  previously  covered  with  some  clean  straw.  For 
three  or  four  days  after  the  operation  the  bird  should  be 
fed  on  soft  food ;  after  that  time  it  may  be  set  at  liberty, 
for  a  short  period,  until  it  has  recovered  entirely  from  the 
operation,  when  it  should  be  put  up  to  fatten." 


236  Profitable  Fotdtry  Keeping, 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


THE    DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


General  Treatment  of  Disease— Causes — Apoplexy — Bronchitis— Bumble  Foot- 
Catarrh — Consumption — Cramp — Cropbound — Diarrhoea — Diphtheria — Egg 
Organs — Feather  Eating — Gapes — Eoup  —Cholera. 

Such  a  work  as  this  would  be  incomplete  were  no  reference 
made  to  the  diseases  of  poultry.  We  do  not  intend  to  go 
into  any  long  descriptions  of  the  diseases  which  affect 
domestic  fowls,  for  they  would  mystify  the  reader,  but  shall 
give  short  descriptions  sufficient  to  enable  a  disease  to  be  recog- 
nized, and  the  best  methods  of  treatment.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
that  the  treatment  of  disease  in  birds  presents  a  considerable 
amount  of  difficulty  to  the  ordinary  poultry  keeper,  for  the 
body  of  the  fowl  being  covered  with  feathers,  and  there  being 
so  few  ways  in  which  the  special  complaints  can  be  diagnosed, 
one  form  of  disease  can  very  easily  be  mistaken  for  another. 
There  are,  however,  symptoms  to  be  found  accompanying  all 
diseases  that  may,  by  a  little  careful  examination,  be  dis- 
covered, and  from  these  it  is  possible  to  learn,  what  is  the 
matter  with  a  fowl.  We  may  say  that,  where  there  are  a 
goodly  number  of  fowls,  it  is  much  better  to  kill  any  bird 
right  off  that  presents  the  appearance  of  having  an  infectious 
disease  upon  it,  rather  than  to  run  the  risk  of  allowing  it  to 
communicate  the  same  to  others.  If  the  bird  so  affected  be 
a  very  valuable  one,  then  an  effort  may  be  made  to  save  it ; 


The  Diseases  of  Poultry,  237 

but  it  will  generally  be  found  cheaper  in  the  long  run  to  kill 
it.  Especially  is  this  so  with  roup,  which  is  a  most 
infectious  and  fatal  disease  ;  and  when  it  once  gets  into  a 
yard,  is  very  difficult  indeed  to  get  rid  of.  In  any  case, 
when  a  bird  is  seen  to  be  ailing,  it  should  be  put  somewhere 
by  itself,  so  that  it  may  not  be  near  the  other  fowls ;  and 
should  the  complaint  from  which  it  is  suffering  be  a  con- 
tagious or  infectious  one,  then  probably  the  other  birds  can 
be  kept  free  from  it ;  but  if  it  is  not,  no  harm  will  have 
been  done.  This  is  a  rule  which  should  never  be  broken ; 
and,  if  the  attendant  will  every  day  look  round  the  fowls,  he 
will  soon  see  if  any  are  moping  or  refusing  their  food,  and  if 
these  are  removed,  as  we  have  suggested,  disease  may  and 
will,  in  many  cases,  be  kept  down. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  diseases  have  been  greatly 
fostered  and  increased  by  the  present  system  of  keeping 
fowls.  Naturally  birds  are  subject  to  but  few  diseases;  but 
the  feeding  upon  rich  or  unsuitable  foods,  over-crowding  and 
keeping  upon  the  same  ground  for  a  long  period,  gradual 
weakening  of  the  system  by  in-breeding,  and  exposure  by 
sending  to  shows,  all  have  had  the  tendency  to  make  the 
birds  more  subject  to  various  forms  of  disease,  to  which  at 
one  time  they  were  entire  strangers.  Hence  the  necessity 
for  treating  fowls  in  a  common-sense  manner ;  for  by  this 
means  much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  preventing  disease, 
which  is  at  all  times  much  better  than  cure,  and  much  easier 
also.  It  would  be  beyond  our  province  to  go  very  deeply 
into  the  treatment  of  diseases,  but  for  facility  of  reference 
we  will  give  them  in  alphabetical  order. 

Apoplexy.-  -Birds,  which  have  been  apparently  in  good 
health,  are  sometimes  found  lying  on  the  floor  of  the  fowl- 
house,  being  unable  to  move,  having  fallen  from  their  perches. 
This  is  apoplexy,  and  is  the  result  of  over-feeding,  by  which  we 


238  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

mean  not  only  too  much  food,  but  also  too  rich  food.  Indian 
corn  has  been  found  to  be  a  great  cause  of  this  disease  ;  and 
the  death  of  one  bird,  should  be  taken  as  an  indication  that 
the  others  can  only  be  saved,  by  reducing  the  food  both  in 
quantity  and  quality.  If  the  bird  so  affected  is  not  dead,  a 
vein  on  the  under  side  of  one  wing  should  be  opened,  and 
the  blood  taken  will  reduce  the  pressure  on  the  brain.  The 
bird  should  be  fed  on  light  food  for  some  time,  and  kept  in  a 
quiet  place. 

Bronchitis. — When  a  cold  settles  on  the  lungs  or  chest, 
instead  of  in  the  head,  and  the  bird  is  constantly  coughing, 
without  having  any  other  symptoms  of  cold,  then  it  is  a  form 
of  bronchitis.  The  bird  should  at  once  be  removed  to  a 
warm,  moist  atmosphere,  which  will  generally  be  sufficient 
to  effect  a  cure,  thouofh  a  few  doses  of  homoeopathic  tincture 
of  aconite  will  materially  assist  it.  A  warm  day  must  be 
chosen  for  returning  the  fowl  to  its  ordinary  house,  and  the 
same  precaution  is  necessary  in  all  bronchial  or  respiratory 
affections.  For  this  disease,  Mr.  Tegetmeier  recommends 
the  administration  of  one  grain  of  calomel  and  one- eighth 
of  a  grain  of  tartar  emetic  to  be  given  at  night. 

Bumble  Foot. — Dorkings  and  Houdans  are  subject  to 
this  more  than  any  other  varieties,  though  we  have  found  it 
in  others.  A  wart-like  substance  appears  in  the  ball  of  the 
foot,  and  if  allowed  to  grow  the  bird  becomes  entirely  lame. 
The  cause  is  generally  high  perches,  but  constant  walking 
upon  cement  or  stone  will  have  the  same  effect.  The  corn 
should  be  removed  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  t^-ie  part 
be  touched  with  nitrate  of  silver,  after  which  it  is  better  to 
keep  the  bird  on  clean  straw  for  a  few  days.  The  inflamma- 
tion may  be  reduced  by  bathing  the  foot  with  warm  water, 
and  the  heat  of  the  body  should  be  also  reduced  by  some 
aperient  medicine. 


The  Diseases  of  Poultry,  239 

Cataerh  or  Common  Cold. — This  complaint  is  indicated 
by  the  same  symptoms  as  we  find  in  human  heings,  namely, 
a  running  at  the  nostrils,  and  a  slight  swelling  of  the*  eyes. 
It  arises  from  cold  or  exposure,  and  if  not  attended  to  may 
develop  into  roup  or  consumption,  both  of  which  should  be 
consulted  for  further  information.  For  cure,  the  bird  should  be 
kept  in  a  warm  place,  and  have  doses  of  roup  pills,  or  homoeo- 
pathic tincture  of  aconite,  and  have  nutritious  food,  rather 
stimulating  in  its  nature. 

Cholera. — See  page  244. 

CoKSUMPTiOK. — This  is  often  an  hereditary  disease,  and 
when  so  is  impossible  to  cure ;  but  it  is  also  caused  by  damp, 
dark,  badly  ventilated  houses.  Scrofulous  tubercles  form  in 
the  lungs,  and  when  the  bird  takes  cold,  that  settles  there. 
The  bird  is  seen  to  gradually  waste  away  ;  there  is  cough  and 
constant  expectoration,  and  the  poor  thing  soon  dies,  a  mass 
of  bones  and  feathers.  No  bird  suspected  to  have  any  seeds 
of  consumption  in  it  should  ever  be  bred  from,  but  if  the 
disease  is  acquired,  not  hereditary,  then  it  may  be  cured  if 
taken  in  time.  Good  housing,  wholesome  and  abundant  diet, 
are  necessary,  and  capsules  of  cod-liver  oil  with  quinine,  or 
Parish's  chemical  food,  and  capsules  of  cod-liver  oil  only,  will 
be  the  best  treatment.  We  should,  however,  strongly  urge 
that  any  bird  so  affected,  even  if  apparently  cured,  be  not 
bred  from,  as  there  is  always  danger  of  its  transmitting  the 
disease  to  its  progeny,  and  the  system  must  be  weakened. 

Cramp. — Chickens  kept  upon  a  clay  soil,  or  in  a  damp 
place,  are  often  subject  to  cramp,  which  is  known  by  the 
toes  of  the  birds  beginning  to  curl  in,  and  then  the  bird  has 
to  walk  or  its  knuckles.  When  discovered,  the  chicken 
should  be  placed  on  a  perfectly  dry  floor,  and  fed  upon  stimu- 
lating foods.  It  will  also  be  a  help  towards  cure,  if  the  feet 
and  legs  are  bathed  with  warm  water,  and  afterwards  rubbed 
with  turpentine. 


240  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

Cropbound. — Fowls,  from  various  reasons,  are  sometimes 
unable  to  pass  the  food  from  the  crop  into  the  gizzard,  and 
the  former  becomes  charged  with  food,  hanging  like  a  bag  in 
front  of  the  bird.  If  not  relieved,  it  will  soon  die  of  starva- 
tion, for,  no  matter  how  much  it  may  eat,  none  of  the  food 
can  pass  into  the  stomach  so  long  as  the  obstruction  remains. 
"When  discovered,  some  milk  and  warm  water  should  be 
poured  down  the  throat  of  the  bird,  to  soften  the  food  in  the 
crop,  which  should  then  be  well  kneaded  with  the  hands. 
Often,  if  dealt  with  early,  this  will  be  found  sufficient,  but  if 
not,  then  an  incision  must  be  made  through  the  skin  to  the 
crop,  and  its  contents  removed  with  the  aid  of  an  egg-spoon. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  all  is  removed,  for  if  the 
original  cause  of  the  obstruction  be  left,  then  all  will  have  to 
be  done  over  again.  The  crop  should  be  washed  out  with 
warm  water,  and  must  then  be  stitched  up,  the  inner  skin 
first  and  the  outer  one  afterwards,  for  which  purpose  silk  or 
horsehair  are  the  best  materials.  The  bird  needs  to  be 
fed  on  soft  food,  such  as  sopped  bread,  for  three  or  four  days, 
and  kept  without  water,  when  it  will  be  none  the  worse  for 
the  operation. 

Diarrhoea. — The  use  of  bonemeal  will  generally  prevent 
this  complaint,  which  may  arise  from  an  insufficient  supply 
of  grain,  or  from  unwholesome  food.  Some  boiled  rice 
mixed  with  powdered  chalk  will  often  stop  it,  and  we  should 
not  advise  any  stronger  remedy  in  slight  cases.  When, 
however,  the  diarrhoea  becomes  excessive ;  then  chlorodyne, 
given  in  water  as  prescribed  on  the  bottles,  is  the  best  thing 
for  it. 

Diphtheria.— We  have  never  heard  of  this  disease  making 
its  appearance  except  in  exhibition  yards,  and  the  ordinary 
poultry  keeper  need  not  fear  it,  except  when  buying  birdSo 


The  Diseases  of  Poultry,  241 

Its  indications  are,  severe  cold  with  high  fever,  and  in  the 
throat  white  spots  are  seen  filling  the  glottis.  Any  bird 
so  affected  should  be  killed  forthwith,  as  it  is  one  of  the 
most  contagious  and  fatal  diseases  known,  and  when  once 
it  gets  into  a  yard,  it  is  not  often  got  out  again  without  the 
sacrifice  of  ail  the  stock. 

Egg  Organs. — The  delicate  mechanism  by  means  of 
which  the  Qgg  is  formed  and  voided,  is  sometimes  put  out 
of  order,  but,  as  a  rule,  this  is  the  result  of  bad  feeding, 
which  stimulates  or  forces  the  organs,  and  the  ordinary  course 
of  nature  is  upset.  Or,  it  may  be,  that  the  insufficient  supply 
of  shell-forming  materials,  results  in  soft  or  shell-less  eggs 
being  voided.  Birds  at  liberty  are  not  often  so  troubled, 
and  those  in  confinement  need  to  be  carefully  fed,  and  to 
be  supplied  with  the  materials  for  shell  formation.  Some- 
times a  hen  becomes  egg-bound,  when  a  little  castor  oil 
may  be  tried,  but  if  that  fails,  then  a  little  olive  oil  should 
be  injected  into  the  oviduct,  and  this  will  generally  securo 
the  object  in  view.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  so  treating 
a  bird,  as  rough  usage  may  easily  break  the  ^gg,  such  a 
circumstance  being  almost  always  followed  by  a  fatal 
result. 

Feather  Eating. — Few  birds  at  liberty  are  ever  found  to 
acquire  the  disgusting  habit  of  feather  eating,  and  in  confine- 
ment it  is  found  mostly  amongst  the  Asiatic  varieties  and 
Houdans.  When  once  contracted  it  is  very  difficult  indeed 
to  cure  the  habit,  and  it  is  best  to  remove  any  bird  found 
so  transgressing,  and,  if  not  valuable,  to  kill  it,  at  the  same 
time  trying  to  remove  any  cause  that  may  exist. 

Idleness  is  a  very  great  cause  of  feather  eating,  and 
hence  the  having  nothing  to  do,  tempts  birds  in  confinement 
to  pluck  out  each  other's  feathers.     It  may  also  be  that 


242  P7'o fit  able  Poultry  Keeping, 

birds  so  confined,  do  not  obtain  something  that  is  necessary 
to  them,  which  we  know  nothing  of,  and  cannot  supply,  but 
which  at  liberty  they  can  find  for  themselves,  and  the 
feathers  satisfy  the  craving  thus  engendered.  And  for 
this  reason  we  have  sometimes  found  bonemeal  of  great 
service,  once  curing  a  hen  by  putting  a  large  quantity  of 
this  into  every  dish  of  food  she  had  for  several  days,  giving 
her  soft  food  all  the  time.  But  in  other  cases  we  have  known 
thts  remedy  to  fail  entirely,  and  we  are  fain  to  acknowledge, 
that  at  times  we  have  been  completely  puzzled  how  to  proceed. 
Thirst  also  is  said  to  induce  the  practice,  and  the  treatment 
recommended  in  the  following  translation  from  an  article 
which  recently  appeared  in  a  French  poultry  journal,  will 
indicate  further  measures  : — 

"  The  cause  appears  to  us,  to  be  attributed  to  the  general 
discomfort  felt  by  all  classes  of  poultry  during  the  cold 
weather,  and  especially  the  east  winds.  The  poor  things, 
huddled  together  in  a  sheltered  corner,  dare  not  come  out 
in  the  open  unless  at  feeding  time,  and  then  they  never 
scratch  about,  nor  look  for  insects,  grass,  or  those 
little  nothings  which  constitute  the  essential  part  of  their 
food,  and  which  is  found  in  every  run  well  attended  to. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  want  of  animal  food  has 
made  itself  felt,  and  the  opportunity  and  temptation  being 
within  their  reach,  they  have  pulled  at  one  another's 
feathers,  which  they  eat  with  evident  satisfaction.  The 
only  immediate  remedy  is  to  set  them  at  liberty,  but  as 
this  cannot  be  done  in  every  case,  one  has  to  be  satisfied 
with  the  means  at  his  disposal.  Let  them  have,  several 
times  a  day,  green-meat.  Mix  with  the  soft  food,  some 
meat  cut  up  into  small  pieces.  Avoid  tainted  meat. 
Eenew  the  sand  in  the  runs,  and  especially  put  dry  sand 
under  the  sheds  where  the  fowls  generally  dust  themselves. 
Care  must  be  taken  with  a  hen,  although  not  picked  herself, 


The  Diseases  of  Poultry,  243 

but  always  pursuing  the  others,  to  isolate  her.  One  single 
bird  is  sufficient  to  set  a  bad  example.  In  small  runs  it 
is  the  cock  which  is  generally  picked  first.  Is  it  from 
excess  of  affection,  or  is  it  spite  and  revenge  ?  It  is  difficult 
to  say.  At  all  events,  he  seldom  resents  it,  and  allows 
himself  to  be  plucked  without  resistance.  In  this  case  the 
best  way  to  protect  him,  is  to  rub  him  over  with  a  sponge 
dipped  in  paraffin.  In  repeating  this  operation  two  or 
three  times,  at  an  interval  of  some  days,  the  hens  will 
entirely  cease  to  strip  their  lord  and  master." 

[I  believe  f\,  judicious  salting  of  the  food  will  cure  a  feather- 
eating  flock  almost  always.  W.] 

Gates. — Chickens  are  sometimes  troubled  with  what  is 
known  as  gapes,  so  called  from  the  constant  gaping  of  the 
mouth.  This  action  is  the  result  of  the  presence  of  worms 
in  the  throat,  and  if  these  are  not  removed,  the  chicken 
soon  dies  from  suffocation.  The  cause  of  these  worms  is 
difficult  to  ascertain.  Some  are  able  to  prevent  them,  by 
the  application  to  the  heads  of  newly-hatched  chicks,  of  a 
mercurial  ointment,  but  in  other  cases  they  appear  to  arise 
out  of  the  ground,  and  all  efforts  to  get  rid  of  them  are  in 
vain.  The  worms  can  be  dislodged  from  the  throat,  by 
dipping  a  small  quill  feather  in  turpentine,  and  then 
passing  it  into  the  throat,  where  it  is  twisted  around  and 
jerked  out,  thus  dislodging  the  worms.  Fumigating  with 
carbolic  acid  is  also  a  most  effectual  cure,  and  where  chicks 
are  largely  affected,  it  is  worth  some  trouble  to  save  their 
lives.  We  have  also  seen  recommended,  placing  the  chicks 
in  a  box  and  dusting  them  well  with  fine  lime,  which  gets 
into  the  throat  and  makes  the  birds  cough,  thus  bringing 
out  the  worms.  In  both  these  cases  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  kill  the  birds  by  suffocation,  which  may  easily  be 
done  if  the  treatment  is  continued  too  long. 

Koup. — It  has  been  stated  that  cold  never  becomes  roup 


244  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

without  the  blood  is  in  a  scrofdous  condition,  and  we 
are  inclined  to  think  that  this  is  so.  Mere  cold  is  not 
difficult  of  cure,  whilst  roup  is,  and  the  latter  is  best  known 
by  the  breath  having  an  offensive  smell  in  conjunction 
with  the  cold.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  do  more  than 
merely  attend  to  the  cold  ;  something  to  counteract  the 
affection  of  the  blood  is  needed.  A  roupy  bird  may  be 
known  by  the  offensive  breath  already  spoken  of,  the  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  and  the  swollen  face  and  eyes.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly contagious,  and  will  soon  spread  through  a  whole 
yard,  if  not  arrested.  In  consequence,  birds  affected  should  be 
rigidly  secluded,  or  killed  off  at  once.  Sulphur  or  charcoal 
are  the  best  to  correct  the  scrofula,  and  Walton's  'roup 
pills  or  copaiba  capsules  should  be  used  for  the  cold.  The 
face,  nostrils,  and  mouth  should  be  well  washed  with 
Condy's  fluid,  or  solution  of  chlorinated  soda,  so  as  to  kill 
the  mucus  which  gathers  there.  Especial  care  is  necessary 
to  see  that  the  birds  do  not  communicate  it  one  to  the  other, 
as  in  drinking  out  of  the  same  fountain,  or  eating  out  of  the 
same  dish.  All  dishes,  etc.,  should  be  at  once  washed  in 
diluted  carbolic  acid,  and  the  houses  well  lime-washed  out. 

Cholera. — This  is  an  epidemic  disease  peculiar  to  this 
country,  attacking  and  often  nearly  destroying  isolated  flocks 
and  yards  having  poor  sanitary  arrangements,  or  care.  It  is 
probably  malarial  in  its  character,  affects  the  liver,  poisons 
the  blood,  causes  violent  diarrhoea,  and  is  often  exceedingly 
rapid  in  its  action  and  termination.  The  fowl  attacked  is 
droopy,  weak,  in  liigh  fever,  with  thirst,  rough  and  draggled 
plumage,  and  has  diarrhoea  with  green  droppings.  Drs.  Dickey 
and  Merry  recommend  pills  as  follows  :  Blue  mass,  60  gr.  ; 
camphor,  25  gr.  ;  Cayenne  pepper,  30  gr. ;  rhubarb,  48  gr.  ; 
laudanum,  60  drops  ;  made  in  20  pills  and  given  one  every 
four  hours  till  they  act  freely,  and,  when  they  have  acted, 
half  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  castor  oil  and  ten  drops  of  laudanum  to 
each  fowl. 


Points  of  Management  245 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


POINTS     OF    MANAGEMENT. 


Importance  of  Details — Keeping  an  Account — Rotation  of  Crops — Poultry  Manure 
— The  Dust-bath — The  Preservation  of  Eggs— Packing  Eggs — Sending  Eggs 
to  Market. 

Our  last  chapter  must  be  given  up  to  those  details  of  man- 
agement, which  we  have  not  been  able  to  touch  upon 
previously,  or  only  in  an  indirect  manner.  It  must  not  be 
assumed,  however,  that  because  we  have  left  these  to  the  last, 
that  they  are  unimportant ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  most 
important,  and  though  they  may  be  regarded  as  only  details, 
yet  these  details  will  have  a  very  great  influence  upon  the 
result,  for  the  neglect  of  one  thing  only  will,  in  the  course  of 
a  year,  even  if  most  trivial  in  itself,  become  an  appreciable 
matter.  This  we  need  not  dwell  upon,  for  the  same  thing 
is  found  in  all  pursuits,  and  in  every  department  of  life. 

We  should,  at  the  outset,  urge  all  who  go  in  for  poultry 
keeping  to  keep  a  strict  account  of  every  item  of  expenditure 
and  receipt,  and  to  annually  make  a  balance  sheet,  for  there 
can  be  no  question  that  in  this,  as  in  many  other  matters, 
there  is  far  too  great  laxity  in  the  keeping  of  accounts. 
Wealthy  persons,  who  do  not  care  how  much  a  thing  costs 
them,  may  be  permitted  to  dispense  with  all  such  records  as 
we  are  now  recommending,  yet  even  they  will  find  it  advauta- 

R 


246  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

geous  to  have  them.  But  so  far  as  those  are  concerned  who 
look  upon  their  poultry  as  a  means  of  adding  to  their  income, 
and  with  whom  they  must  be  profitable  if  kept  at  all,  it  is 
almost  essential  that  they  should  set  down  every  item  of 
expenditure  and  receipt,  not  only  for  reference  and  as  a 
means  of  seeing  whether  the  fowls  pay,  but  also  for  future 
guidance.  Armed  with  a  full  and  faithful  record  of  a  year's 
work,  an  intelligent  poultry  keeper  will  be  able  to  avoid  past 
mistakes,  to  see  in  what  direction  he  may  develop  his  busi- 
ness, with  the  greatest  probabilities  of  success,  to  know 
which  breeds  have  proved  the  most  profitable,  what  expenses 
can  be  cut  down,  and,  it  may  be,  can  discover  how  to  turn 
a  loss  into  a  profit.  Figures  are  stubborn  things,  but  a 
study  of  them  has  saved  many  a  man  from  ruin,  and  we 
believe  that  in  every  pursuit  of  life,  whether  it  be  our  ordinary 
affairs,  or  those  outside  things  which  minister  to  our  plea- 
sures, but  especially  in  matters  of  business,  a  strict  account 
should  be  kept  of  every  item  of  expenditure.  Without 
this,  there  is  great  danger  of  getting  the  balance  on  the 
wrong  side.  We  have  no  wish  to  write  a  homily  on  the 
economies  of  life,  though  such  a  subject  is  full  of  the  deepest 
interest,  but  this  is  not  the  proper  place  for  it.  We  urge 
every  one,  however,  whether  the  number  of  his  birds  be  small 
or  great,  to  keep  an  account  of  the  same.  The  cost  of  a 
book  in  which  to  keep  the  account,  need  not  be  more  than  a 
shilling  or  two,  and,  except  where  very  large  numbers  are 
kept,  one  book  will  be  sufficient.  A  quarto  book,  bound  in 
boards,  ruled  with  %  and  cts.  columns,  and  containing  about 
a  hundred  pages,  can  be  obtained  for  a  quarter,  and  the 
majority  of  our  readers  will  find  this  as  large  as  they  will 
require. 

The  poultry  keeper  must  begin  his  account  by  taking  stock 
of  all  his  birds^  houses  and  appliances  on  hand  at  the  beginning 


Points  of  Management,  247 

of  the  year  (which  does  not  necessarily  mean  January  1st),  and 
the  money  value  of  these  will  represent  the  capital  invested 
in  the  yard.  Then  he  will  require  several  pages  to  be  set 
aside  for  the  cash  account,  in  which  all'  his  money  receipts 
and  expenditure  should  be  set  down  day  by  day,  together  with 
the  particulars  of  the  same.  Next  will  come  the  ^gg  account, 
which  will  show  the  number  of  eggs  laid,  and  the  way  in 
which  they  are  disposed  of.  If  the  number  of  fowls  kept  be 
only  few,  and  not  very  fluctuating,  it  will  not  be  requisite  to 
have  a  poultry  register  ;  but  if  the  stock  be  a  large  one,  then 
it  will  be  advantageous  to  keep  such  an  account,  adding  all 
the  birds  hatched  or  purchased,  and,  of  course,  taking  from 
those  the  sold,  killed,  or  otherwise  disposed  of.  A  hatching 
record  is  very  useful  during  the  breeding  season,  in  which 
the  date  of  setting  the  hens,  the  date  the  eggs  are  due,  the 
number  fertile  and  hatched,  and  breeds,  can  be  enumerated. 
This  prevents  many  mistakes  being  made,  but  in  some  yards 
a  simpler  plan  is  adopted,  namely,  that  of  hanging  a  card 
above  each  hatching  box,  upon  which  these  particulars  are 
entered,  and  all  that  need  then  be  put  in  the  books  are  the 
numbers  hatched.  At  the  end  of  the  twelve  months  the 
stock  of  fowls,  &c.  should  again  be  revalued,  and  a  balance 
sheet  made,  showing  the  operations  of  the  twelve  months, 
with  the  result  thereof.  We  must  just  remind  tlie  poultry 
keeper,  that  the  value  of  eggs  and  chickens  used  in  the 
household  must  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  yard,  or  the 
balance  sheet  will  not  be  a  true  one. 

In  one  of  our  earlier  chapters,  we  hinted  at  a  system  which 
can  be  adopted  by  small  farmers  and  other  occupiers  of  land, 
in  which  the  fowls  really  form  one  in  a  course  of  rotation  of 
crops.  This  is  not  necessary  on  a  large  farm,  for  there  the 
birds  can  be  placed  on  the  land  after  harvest,  or,  as  we  have 
sometimes  seen,  the  houses  may  be  widely  scattered  apart,  and 

R  2 


248  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 

the  fowls  allowed  to  wander  about  even  amongst  the  growing 
corn  or  roots.  Fowls  will  do  no  harm  to  either  of  these  crops, 
when  they  are  four  or  six  inches  above  the  ground,  and  as  they 
are  as  fully  grown  as  this  by  the  time  the  chickens  need  be 
put  out,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  adopting  the  plan  ;  the  birds 
wdll  thrive  amain,  for  they  will  get  just  the  food  most  suited 
to  them — insects  and  worms — and,  in  return,  the  crops  will  be 
benefited  by  their  droppings.  Where  smaller  runs  have  to 
be  given,  it  is  a  capital  plan  to  have  double  runs  to  each 
house,  using  these  on  alternate  years,  and  growing  vegetables 
on  the  ground  not  in  use.  By  this  means  the  ground  will  be 
kept  sweet  and  clean,  it  will  not  get  contaminated,  disease  will 
be  prevented,  and  the  crops  grown  thereon  will  be  very  heavy 
indeed.  Of  course  the  system  can  be  largely  extended,  and 
fields  lying  fallow  for  a  year  may  be  used  for  poultry  keeping. 
This  leads  us  to  the  subject  of  poultry  manure.  Although 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  droppings  from  fowls  is  most 
valuable,  though  not  quite  so  good  as  has  sometimes  been 
represented,  it  has  not  yet  become  a  marketable  commodity 
of  any  importance.  There  is  a  limited  demand  for  it  amongst 
gardeners,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  much  better  to  have  some 
means  of  using,  instead  of  selling,  it.  None  should  be 
wasted,  and  mixed  with  fine  dry  soil  it  becomes  a  most 
valuable  manure  for  any  kind  of  crops.  We  know  one  farmer 
near  Aylesbury,  who  buys  large  quantities  of  the  duck  manure 
for  his  root  crops,  finding  it  the  best  he  can  get  for  them, 
and  certainly  the  cheapest.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
droppings  of  a  fowl  is  worth  fifty  cents  a  year  to  the 
land,  and  if  that  is  so,  then  the  keeping  of  poultry  be- 
comes of  still  greater  importance  than  we  have  ever  claimed 
for  it. 

In  our  chapter  on  the  sitting  hen,  we  spoke  of  a  dust 
bath,    and  this  is  needed  by  ordinary  fowls  also ;     those 


The  Dust  Bath,  .  249 

who  know  the  value  of  such  a  bath,  both  in  summer 
and  winter,  consider  it  essential  to  successful  poultry  keep- 
ing. And  how  few  of  our  poultry  keepers  there  are, 
who  give  their  fowls  an  opportunity  of  revelling  in  a 
heap  of  loose  earth  or  ashes,  either  in  the  hatching  season, 
or  when  the  ground  is  damp  and  they  cannot  obtain  it 
naturally.  The  dust  bath  is  to  poultry,  nature's  cleaner 
and  renovator,  and  is  as  necessary  for  cleansing  the  feathers 
of  fowls  from  vermin  and  effete  matter,  as  a  cool  pure  water 
bath  is  to  the  person  of  cleanly  habits.  Poultry  with  free 
range  in  summer,  will  be  able  to  help  themselves  to  a  dust 
bath,  if  they  have  to  roll  in  the  newly  made  flower  or 
vegetable  beds,  but  with  fowls  in  confinement  the  means 
and  material  must  be  supplied.  A  dry  mass  of  fine  sand 
or  road  dust,  fine  loam  or  coal  ashes,  old  mortar,  or  in  fact 
anything  of  that  kind  will  do.  This  mass  of  dry  material 
should  be  under  a  shed  to  protect  it  from  rain  in  summer 
time,  and  in  ihe  sunniest  corner  of  the  hen-house  or  shed 
in  winter.  A  capital  plan  is  to  have  a  small  shed  adjoining 
the  fowl  house,  with  or  without  a  connection  thereto,  and 
devote  this  entirely  to  the  purposes  of  the  dust  bath.  Such 
a  shed  need  not  be  more  than  a  couple  of  feet  high,  and 
should  be  entirely  open  at  the  front,  with  a  sloping  roof  to 
keep  out  the  rain. 

If  we  watch  the  habits  of  all  wild  birds,  we  can  see  them 
in  the  open  clearings  and  on  the  country  roads,  at  early 
sunrise,  dusting  themselves  as  rapidly  as  possible  ;  and  if 
we  give  our  domestic  fowls  a  chance,  we  can  see  an  instinctive 
desire  in  the  young,  as  well  as  the  old,  to  scratch,  and  pul- 
verize the  earth,  if  in  lumps,  and  they  will  then  adjust  their 
feathers,  and  by  the  rapid  action  of  their  claws  dust  them- 
selves thoroughly,  and  by  shaking,  rid  themselves  of  lice. 
The  dust  bath  is  made  more  effective  by  putting  a  handful 


250  Profitable  Poultry  Keeping. 

or  two  of  sulphur  and  carbolic  powder  througli  the  mass, 
and  mixing  them  together.  The  ground  should  be  excavated 
out  six  inches,  or  the  shed  have  a  front  ledge  of  the  same 
width,  and  this  filled  up  with  the  ashes,  or  whatever  is  used. 
If  of  much  less  depth  than  this  the  birds  will  be  unable  to 
get  a  thorough  cleansing.  Cleanliness  in  every  way  is  of 
the  greatest  importance.  Uncleanliness  about  the  fowls,  their 
quarters,  or  their  runs,  is  a  sure  cause  of  disease.  It  gener- 
ates vermin,  and  vermin  saps  the  foundations  of  health. 
Hens  will  not  lay  well,  nor  thrive  while  infested  with  lice, 
or  while  they  roost  in  filthy  places,  and  inhale  the  noxious 
gases  which  emanate  from  their  accumulated  droppings. 
Ill-ventilated  fowl  houses,  and  the  absence  of  light  and  sun, 
exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the  health  of  fowls. 

There  are  many  poultry  keepers  who  make  a  great  mis- 
take, in  that  they  do  not  take  sufficient  care  to  send  their 
produce  to  market  in  the  best  way.  We  have  already  dealt 
with  this  subject  in  its  relation  to  fowls,  but  it  is  also 
necessary  to  say  a  few  words  upon  it  so  far  as  eggs  are 
concerned.  Purchasers  of  eggs  know  what  a  great  difference 
there  is  in  what  are  known  as  new-laid  eggs,  and  we  believe 
this  is  largely  influenced  by  the  method  of  preservation. 
Eggs  can  be  kept  for  three  or  four  weeks  in  a  very  simple 
manner,  and  it  will  be  difficult  for  even  an  expert,  at  the 
end  of  that  period,  to  tell  the  difference  between  such  an 
^g%,  and  one  three  or  four  days  old.  If  they  can  be  kept 
fresh  for  this  length  of  time,  they  can  be  so  kept  for  a 
shorter  period,  and  as  in  many  places  it  is  convenient  to 
get  them  to  market  only  once  a  week,  such  a  system  as  we 
are  about  to  recommend  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  value. 
The  place  selected  for  keeping  eggs  should  be  cool  in 
summer,  but  not  cold  in  winter,  that  is,  it  should  be  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  from  45  to  60  degrees  all  the    year 


Preserving  Eggs  F7'esh, 


251 


round.  If  too  cold,  the  eggs  will  freeze  and  crack,  if  too 
warm,  they  will  commence  to  decay  and  get  stale  sooner  than 
they  otherwise  would.  Shelves  should  be  fitted  up  with  holes 
bored  in  them,  sufficiently  large  to  keep  the  eggs  upstanding, 
but,  of  course,  not  large  enough  to  allow  them  to  pass 
through.  These  shelves  will  be  very  inexpensive  and  will  serve 
a  lifetime.  The  eggs  should  be  placed  in  these  holes  broad- 
end  downwards,  and  tests  have  proved  that  they  will  keep 
fresh  in  this  position,  very  much  longer  than  with  the  broad 
end  upwards.      Some  keep  eggs  in  bran,  but  the  pierced 


d 

^-^^ '--.^^^^ 

k''^: 

iggiSi^^M 

E!i!''??!;?,!!ig£ 

n 

BUI 

> 

^.iKiimi 

Fig.  14. — Travelling  Egg  Box. 


board  is  much  preferable,  and  the  free  circulation  of  the 
air  round  the  eggs,  assists  greatly  in  their  preservation. 
Instead  of  the  pierced  shelves,  cardboard  partitions,  as  used 
in  Qgg  boxes,  may  be  adopted,  but  we  do  not  think  that  they 
are  so  good  or  so  handy. 

The  advantage  of  getting  eggs  to  market  as  soon  as 
possible  after  being  laid,  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  special 
boxes  for  the  purpose  of  sending  them  by  rail.  The  old 
system  of  packing  in  straw  may  serve  very  well  where  time 
is  of  little  object,  but  it  is  clumsy  and  not  very  safe.  The 
boxes  we  are  now  speaking  of,  are  made  in  almost  all  sizes 
from    one   dozen    upwards,  and  consist    of   strong  square 


252 


Profitable  Poultry  Keeping, 


wooden  boxes,  generally  with  lock  and  key,  insid3  of  which 
are  cardboard  partitions,  forming  squares,  of  sufficient  size 
to  allow  an  ^gg  to  stand  upright  in  each.  Between  each 
row,  a  sheet  of  thick  felt  is  placed,  and  no  other  packing 
is  required,  the  eggs  travelling  in  this  way  with  very  little 
danger  of  breakage.  Fig.  14  shows  one  of  these  boxes,  hold- 
ing six  dozen  eggs.  The  benefits  of  the  system  "are  obvious, 
for  the  boxes  are  easily  filled,  as  easily  emptied,  and  can 
be  used  over  and  over  again,  so  that  the  first,  is  the  only 
cost,  and  that  is  by  no  means  a  heavy  one.     Another  kind 


Fig.  li.— The  "  OvirVr  "  Eg?  Box. 


of  package  is  that  known  as  the  *'  Ovifer,"  shown  in  Fig. 
15,  the  eggs  in  this  being  held  by  springs  fixed  to  tin  trays, 
which  latter  are  fitted  into  a  wooden  box.  It  is  customary  with 
those  who  send  their  eggs  to  market  every  day,  to  date  each 
one  as  soon  as  collected,  but,  whilst  in  their  case  such  a 
plan  is  to  be  recommended,  for  obvious  reasons  it  would 
not  be  wise  for  others  to  do  so.  But  when  eggs  can  be  sent 
out  daily,  better  prices  will  be  obtained,  and  present  ex- 
press rates,  as  well  as   the   cheap   freight  now  charged  by 


Facilities  for  Carriage,  253 

the  railway  companies,  offer  facilities  to  poultry  keepers  to 
reach  consumers,  which  were  never  given  before.  Arrange- 
ments can  often  be  made  with  hotels  and  large  houses, 
for  supplying  eggs  at  good  paying  prices.  The  energetic 
poultry  keeper,  will  take  care  to  omit  no  opportunity  of  this 
kind,  in  order  to  make  his  profits  as  large  as  possible. 


INDEX, 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Account,  Keeping  an.         .       5 

2,  241 

Chicken  yards  .         •        , 

, 

30 

Adapting  existing  buildings 

.       34 

Chickens  during    the    first  few 

Andalusian  Fowls      . 

.       79 

days .... 

, 

191 

Apoplexy 

.     223 

Early 

. 

63 

Artificial  heating  of  houses 

.       45 

„         Food  of      . 

192 

-197 

„         Incubation 

.     176 

,,         How  to  secuie  earl/ 

, 

218 

„         Mothers     . 

200 

,,         Management  of  . 

, 

194 

Aseel  Fowls 

.       80 

,,         Rearitg      .         . 

, 

189 

Attendant's  house     . 

.       64 

Cochin  Fow^ls    . 

, 

84 

Aylesbury  Ducks 

137 

Cochins  thirty  years  sgo     , 

, 

12 

Confinement,  Eflfect  of 

. 

56 

Consumption    . 

, 

235 

Bantam  Fowls  . 

80 

Coops       .... 

, 

193 

BoneMe.I 

215 

Cottagers  and  poultry-kee[.ing 

, 

21 

Brahma  Fowls  . 

.       83 

Cramming  Fowls 

, 

223 

Breeds,  Choice  of 

69 

Cramp      .... 

, 

235 

„       Hardy  . 

71 

Cropbound 

, 

236 

,,        Non-sitting    . 

75 

Crops,  Benefit  to,  by  Gee^e 

, 

147 

,,       Sitters  and  moth  rs 

76 

Cross-bree'ing  . 

4 

126 

Bronchitis 

234 

Cross  V.  pure-bred  Fowls  . 

70 

126 

Bumblcfoot 

234 

Buying  birds     . 

158 

,,       eggs  for  hitting 

158 

Details  in  management,  Import- 

ance of      ,         . 

241 

Diarrhoea          ,         ,         , 

236 

Caponising  Fowls 

228 

Diphtheria        .         .         , 

236 

Catarrh   .... 

235 

Diseases  of  Poultry   .         . 

232 

Cayuga  Ducks  . 

.     140 

Dominique  Fowls 

89 

Chicken  house,  Floor  for    . 

67 

Dorking  Fowls  . 

89 

„             „       Position  of 

.       66 

Dressing  Fowls,   French  system 

„             ,,       Size  of      . 

68 

of     ...         . 

, 

226 

256 


Index. 


Duck  farms       .... 

Ducks,  Breeding,  hatching,   and 

rearing      .... 

,,     Feeding  of       .         .         . 

„     in  small  runs  . 

„     not  to  be  kept  with  hens  . 

,,     water  neede.l  for  breeders 


PAGE 

134 


143 
145 
142 
133 
133 


Dust-bath,  The 


52,  172,  244 


Egg  organs.  Affections  of  . 
lEggs,  airing  during  incu'ation 

, ,     Consumption  of 

„     Formation  of  . 

5,     How  to  sec 'ire  early 

„     Packing  . 

,,     Preservation  of 

,,     Prices  of 

,,     Ti  sting  the     . 

„     Value  of  fresh  , 


Farms,  The  best  plan  for   . 

Farm-yard  mongrels . 

Fattening,  Methods  of 

Feather-eating . 

Feeding  of  breeding  stock 

Fencing  for  runs 

Fertile  eggs,  When  to  expt  ct 

Floor  for  chicken-house 

Food,  Effect  of  bad  . 

„     for  fowls   in    confinement 
and  at  liberty    . 

,,     for  sitting  hens 

„     qudli'ies    of    the   vari 
grains 

„     the  fuel  of  all  life    . 

„     "What  is  needed  in    . 
Fowls  suitable  for  fattening 
France,  Farms  in 
French  Fowls    , 
French  table  Fowls,  Superiority 

of     ...         . 
Fruit  trees  in  runs    , 


237 
171 

14 
190 
217 
247 
246 

15 
172 
,  18 


i.7 
125 
221 
237 
ICi 

54 
161 

67 
208 

210 
172 

211 
207 
210 
221 
14 
03 

220 
59 


Game  Fowls  ,  •  • 
Gapes  .  .  ,  , 
Geese,  Breeds  of       ,         , 

,,     in  Norfolk 

,,     Management  of 
General-utility  Fowls 
Gradual  commencement  bc^t 
Gravel  and  grass  runs 
Ground,  Selection  of . 

Hamburgh  Fowls  .  , 
Hatching- boxes 

,,  Management  during 

Health  and  condition 
Hobby,  Poultry-keeping  ofien  a 
Houses,  Aspect  of 

, ,         and  runs,  S  ze  of , 

,,         Cheap. 

,,         Cost  of         .         . 

,,         elaborate      ones       not 
needed    . 

,,         Floors  in 

,,         Foundation  for     . 

,,         Framework  for     . 

,,         good  ones  required 

,,         Impoi'tance  of 

„         in  gardens    . 

,,         Materials  for 

,,         on  whee's    . 

,,         Position  of  Chicken 

,,         Saving  of  timber. 

,,  Separate 

,,         Tenant's  fixtures  . 

,,         too  larg^i  o^>jectionab'e 

„         Ventilation  in 

,,         Walls  of       . 

.,         Windows  and  doors  in 
Housing  of  Ducks,  The     . 
Hydro-incubator,  The        , 


In-breeding,  Evils  ot 
Incubation  Artificial 


Index. 


257 


3[ncubation,  Period  of        . 

Incubator,  The  Hydro 
„  Owen's  Tabular 

„  Arnold's  Eg^'  Oven 

,,  Hearson's  Cham  pica 

„  New  Centennial 

„  Perfect  Hatcher 

,,  Thermostatic 

Incubators,  Advice  to  workers  of 
„  American  . 


Killing  Fowls 


Langs  ban  Fowls 
leghorn  Fowls . 


Malay  Fowls     . 
Mani^,  The  Poultry  . 
Manure,  The  value  of  Poultry" 
Minorca  Fowls  . 
Mongrels,  Farm-yard  , 

Mothers,  Artifi'^^ial    o 
Muscovy  Ducks         , 


Nest  boxes        .         ,         , 
Nests,  Making  the    . 
l^on-sitting  breeds     . 
Number  of  hens  to  cock  bird 


Ornamental  Ducks    . 
Over-feeding,  Effect  of 


Packing  eggs    .         .         , 
Parents,  Influence  of         , 
Paris,  Poultry  in 
Pay  ?  Does  Poultry-keeping 
Pekin  Ducks    .        , 


PAGE 

1/4 
180 
184 

184 
185 
186 

isr 

187 
187 


225 


104 
107 


111 
11 
244 
111 
ji28 
200 
141 


50 

168 

75 

160 


142 

209 


247 

154 

16 

22 
139 


Perches    .... 

PAGR 

48 

Pleasure  in  keeping  Poultry 

20 

Plymouth  Rock  Fowls 

117 

Polish  Fowls     . 

117 

Poultry,  Diseas'  s  of    . 

232 

,,         keeping,-  Kecent  increase 

of  interest  in 

13 

,,         Who  may  keep     . 

18 

,,         Who  should  not  keep 

19 

Preservation  of  Eggs 

246 

Profit,  Aids  to  secure 

62 

Rats,  Provision  against     . 

67 

Rearing  Chickens 

189 

Rouen  Ducks    . 

.     138 

Roup        ...» 

239 

Runs  and  fencing 

54 

Runs,  Changing  tl.e  . 

243 

,,      Size  of  . 

21-33 

Sale  of  eggs  and  Chickens. 

.     129 

Scotth  Grrey  Fowls    . 

.     118 

Selection,  Errors  in  . 

.       69 

Sheds       .... 

.       35 

Silky  Fowls      . 

121 

Sitters  and  mothers  . 

76 

Sitting  Hen,  The       .         .       164-170 

Sitting  Hens,  Food  for 

172 

,,         ,,      Place  for 

.     166 

Space  required  for  Fowls  . 

53 

Spanish  Fowls  . 

121 

Stock  birds,  Importance  of  care 

in  selection  of    . 

.     153 

Stocks,  Improving  present 

131 

Suburban  Residents  . 

21 

Table  Fowls      ....       75 
,,       ,,     Superiority  of  French     220 
Testing  sex  and  fertility  of  eggs, 

Supposed  ways  of       .         .190 


258 


Index, 


PAGE 

Testing  the  eggs           .         .  .712 

Turkeys  as  rearers        .         .  .205 

„         Breeds  and  management  150 

„         Fattening        .         .  .152 


Water 
Wild  Duck 

Yard,  Dividing  tlie 
Yards,  Plans  fpr 


PAGE 

210-219 
.      136 


23 


'W 


n 


/- 


